Increased Cardiometabolic Risk in Dynapenic Obesity: Results from the Study of Workers’ Health (ESAT)
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design and Participants
2.2. Anthropometric Measurement
2.3. Comorbidities
2.4. Physical Activity Level Assessment
2.5. Peripheral Muscle Strength
2.6. Characterization of Anthropometrical and Peripheral Muscle Strength Profile
- Non-obese/Non-dynapenic (NOND): individuals with BMI < 30 kg/m2 and handgrip strength within the predicted range for their sex and age.
- Non-obese/Dynapenic (NOD): individuals with BMI < 30 kg/m2 and handgrip strength below the predicted range for their sex and age.
- Obese/Non-dynapenic (OND): individuals with BMI ≥ 30 kg/m2 but with preserved handgrip strength.
- Obese/dynapenic (OD): individuals with both obesity assessed by BMI ≥ 30 kg/m2 and low handgrip strength verified by dynamometry values below the predicted range for their sex and age.
2.7. Cardiovascular Risk Assessment
2.8. Data Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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CARDIOVASCULAR RISK INDEX/INDICATOR | FORMULA | PREDICTIVE RISK VALUES |
---|---|---|
Atherogenic Index (AI) | Low cardiovascular risk (<2) | |
Plasma Atherogenic Index (PAI) | Low (<0.11) Medium (0.11–0.21) High (>0.21) | |
Hypertriglyceridemic Waist (HW) | - | WC ≥ 88 cm (women) ≥102 cm (men) and TG ≥ 150 mg/dL (both sexes) |
A Body Shape Index (ABSI) | - | |
Atherogenic Dyslipidemia (AD) | - | TG ≥ 150, HDL-c < 40 and LDL-c > 130 (men) TG ≥ 150, HDL-c < 50 and LDL-c > 130 (women) Or TG ≥ 150, HDL-c < 40 and LDL-c > 130 (both sexes) |
Castelli’s Index I (CI I) | IC I > 4.4 (women), >5.1 (men); | |
Castelli’s Index II (CI II) | IC II > 2.9 (women), >3.3 (men) | |
Framingham Score | - | Low (<5%), Moderate (5–19%), High (≥20%) |
Variable | n = 199 Mean ± SD or Median [IQR 25–75%] or N (%) |
---|---|
Age (years) | 45.1 ± 11.7 |
Sex (%) | |
Men | 81 (40.7%) |
Women | 118 (59.3%) |
Weight (Kg) | 76.8 [68.2–88.9] |
Height (m) | 1.65 [1.58–1.73] |
BMI (Kg/m2) | 28.2 [24.8–32.1] |
BMI categories | |
Normal weight | 52 (26.1%) |
Overweight | 73 (36.7%) |
Obese | 74 (37.2%) |
Waist circumference (cm) | 92 [83–101] |
Handgrip strength (KgF) | 28 [22–40] |
Men | 40 [34–47] |
Women | 23 [20–28] |
Dynapenia | 91 (45.7%) |
IPAQ-SF categories | |
Low | 64 (32.2%) |
Moderate | 59 (29.7%) |
High | 76 (38.2%) |
Comorbidities | |
Hypertension | 41 (20.6%) |
Diabetes | 11 (5.5%) |
Dyslipidemia | 3 (1.5%) |
Hypothyroidism | 9 (4.5%) |
Smoking | |
Non-smoker | 147 (73.9%) |
Smoker | 20 (10.0%) |
Former smoker | 32 (16.1%) |
Blood Glucose (mg/dL) | 89 [84–97] |
Total Cholesterol (mg/dL) | 185 [160–212] |
HDL Cholesterol (mg/dL) | 50 [42–60] |
LDL Cholesterol (mg/dL) | 127 [102–153] |
Triglycerides (mg/dL) | 102 [74–147] |
Medications | |
Antihypertensive Medications | 35 (17.6%) |
Diuretics | 13 (6.5%) |
Antidiabetic Medications | 10 (5%) |
Antihyperlipidemic Medications | 7 (3.5%) |
Psychotropic Medications | 14 (7%) |
Cardiometabolic risk assessment | |
Atherogenic Index | 2.7 [2.0–3.4] |
Plasma Atherogenic Index | 0.29 [0.12–0.51] |
Plasma Atherogenic Index | |
Low Risk | 45 (22.6%) |
Intermediate Risk | 30 (15.1%) |
Increased Risk | 124 (62.3%) |
Hypertriglyceridemic Waist | 26 (13.1%) |
A Body Shape Index | 0.77 [0.73–0.80] |
Atherogenic Dyslipidemia | 11 (5.53%) |
Castelli I | 3.7 [3.0–4.4] |
Castelli I risk | 48 (24.1%) |
Castelli II | 2.5 [2.0–3.3] |
Castelli II risk | 74 (37.2%) |
Framingham (%) | 5.6 [3.3–11.7] |
Framingham risk category | |
Low risk (<5%) | 87 (43.7%) |
Intermediate risk (5–19%) | 87 (43.7%) |
High risk (≥20%) | 25 (12.6%) |
Variable | NOND (N = 68) | NOD (N = 57) | OND (N = 40) | DO (N = 34) | p-Value |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Age (years) | 46.7 ± 12.6 | 43.3 ± 11.8 | 48 ± 11.5 | 41.5 ± 8.2 | 0.058 |
Sex (%) | 0.508 | ||||
Men | 30 (44.1%) | 25 (43.9%) | 16 (40%) | 10 (29.4%) | |
Women | 38 (55.9%) | 32 (56.1%) | 24 (60%) | 24 (70.6%) | |
Weight (Kg) | 71.9 [65–80] | 70.9 [63–74.4] | 91.4 [83.9–104.9] ***††† | 89 [78.3–104] ***††† | <0.001 |
Height (m) | 1.7 [1.6–1.7] | 1.7 [1.6–1.7] | 1.7 [1.6–1.8] | 1.6 [1.6–1.7] | 0.110 |
BMI (Kg/m2) | 25.8 [23.8–28] | 26 [23.3–27.3] | 32.9 [31.5–34.7] ***††† | 33.3 [31–37.5] ***††† | <0.001 |
BMI categories | <0.001 | ||||
Eutrophic | 27 (39.7%) | 25 (43.9%) | 0 | 0 | |
Overweight | 41 (60.3%) | 32 (56.1%) | 0 | 0 | |
Obese | 0 | 0 | 40 (100%) ***††† | 34 (100%) ***††† | |
Waist circumference (cm) | 85 [79–93] | 85 [80–92] | 103.1 [95–112] ***††† | 103.3 [96.4–110] ***††† | <0.001 |
Handgrip strength (Kg/F) | 38 [26–45] | 22 [19–32] *** | 32 [27–49] ††† | 22 [20–28] ***### | <0.001 |
Men | 44 [40–50] | 34 [30–36] *** | 49 [42–53] ††† | 35 [29–36] ***### | <0.001 |
Women | 27 [26–30] | 20 [18–22] *** | 28 [25–31>] ††† | 21 [19–22] ***### | <0.001 |
Dynapenia | 0 (0%) | 57 (100%) | 0 (0%) | 34 (100%) | <0.001 |
IPAQ-SF categories | 0.650 | ||||
Low | 16 (23.5%) | 19 (33.3%) | 16 (40%) | 13 (38.2%) | |
Moderate | 22 (32.4%) | 17 (29.8%) | 11 (27.5%) | 9 (26.5%) | |
High | 30 (44.1%) | 21 (36.9%) | 13 (32.5%) | 12 (35.3%) | |
Comorbidities | |||||
Hypertension | 10 (14.7%) | 10 (17.5%) | 11 (27.5%) | 10 (29.4%) | 0.200 |
Diabetes | 4 (5.9%) | 3 (5.3%) | 3 (7.5%) | 1 (2.9%) | 0.880 |
Dyslipidemia | 0 (0.0%) | 0 (0.0%) | 3 (7.5%) | 0 (0.0%) | 0.012 |
Hypothyroidism | 2 (2.9%) | 4 (7.0%) | 1 (2.5%) | 2 (5.9%) | 0.666 |
Smoking | 0.701 | ||||
Non-smoker | 53 (77.9%) | 44 (77.2%) | 26 (65.0%) | 24 (70.6%) | |
Smoker | 6 (8.8%) | 6 (10.5%) | 4 (10.0%) | 4 (11.8%) | |
Former smoker | 9 (13.2%) | 7 (12.3%) | 10 (25.0%) | 6 (17.6%) | |
Glycemia (mg/dL) | 90 [84–97] | 88 [83–94] | 93 [87–101.5] | 90 [85–99] | 0.099 |
Total Cholesterol (mg/dL) | 180 160–220] | 182 [162–205] | 191 [158–228] | 188 [168–206] | 0.664 |
HDL Cholesterol (mg/dL) | 51 [43–62] | 50 [47–66] | 51 [42–60] | 46 [35–52] **†††# | 0.009 |
LDL Cholesterol (mg/dL) | 126 [100–156] | 118 [102.6] | 135 [100–161] | 132 [103–152] | 0.751 |
Triglycerides (mg/dL) | 96 [69–126] | 85 [65–189] **††† | 106 [90–139] *†† | 0.002 | |
Medications | |||||
Antihypertensive drugs | 10 (14.7%) | 8 (14%) | 10 (25%) | 7 (20.6%) | 0.446 |
Diuretics | 2 (2.9%) | 1 (1.7%) | 6 (15%) **†† | 4 (11.8%) *† | 0.018 |
Antidiabetic drugs | 2 (2.9%) | 3 (5.3%) | 3 (7.5%) | 2 (5.9%) | 0.665 |
Antilipemic drugs | 2 (2.9%) | 2 (3.5%) | 3 (7.5%) | 0 | 0.377 |
Psychotropic drugs | 2 (2.9%) | 7 (12.3%%) | 2 (5%) | 2 (8.8%) | 0.207 |
Cardiometabolic risk | |||||
Atherogenic Index | 2.6 [2.0–3.3] | 2.3 [1.6–4.1] | 2.9 [2.1–3.5] † | 3.1 [2.6–3.9] **†††# | 0.004 |
Atherogenic Index of Plasma | 0.2 [0.1–0.5] | 0.2 [0.0–0.4] | 0.4 [0.2–0.6] *†† | 0.4 [0.3–0.5] **††† | 0.001 |
Atherogenic Index of Plasma categories | 0.002 | ||||
Low Risk | 17 (25%) | 21 (36.8%) | 6 (15%) | 1 (2.9%) | |
Intermediate Risk | 13 (19.1%) | 8 (14%) | 4 (10%) | 5 (14.7%) | |
High Risk | 38 (55.9%) | 28 (49.1%) | 30 (75%) *†† | 28 (82.4%) **††† | |
Hypertriglyceridemic Waist | 2 (2.9%) | 2 (3.5%) | 16 (40%) ***††† | 6 (17.7%) *†## | <0.001 |
A Body Shape Index | 0.8 [0.7–0.8] | 0.8 [0.7–0.8] | 0.8 [0.7–0.8] | 0.8 [0.7–0.8] | 0.806 |
Atherogenic Dyslipidemia | 4 (5.9%) | 2 (3.5%) | 4 (10%) | 1 (2.9%) | 0.530 |
Castelli I | 3.5 [3.0–4.3] | 3.3 [2.6–5.1] | 3.8 [3.1–4.5] † | 4.1 [3.6–4.9] **†††# | 0.005 |
Castelli I risk | 14 (20.6%) | 13 (22.8%) | 10 (25%) | 11 (32.35%) | 0.608 |
Castelli II | 2.5 [2.0–3.2] | 2.4 [1.6–3.0] | 2.6 [2.0–3.3] | 2.9 [2.5–3.5] **††# | 0.020 |
Castelli II risk | 24 (35.3%) | 18 (31.6%) | 14 (35%) | 18 (52.9%) | 0.219 |
Framingham (%) | 5.7 [2.5–13.8] | 4.3 [1.9–9.0] | 7.6 [4.1–12.8] | 5.7 [2.4–2.3] | 0.562 |
Framingham risk category | 0.141 | ||||
Low risk (<5%) | 31 (45.6%) | 29 (50.9%) | 12 (30%) | 15 (44.1%) | |
Intermediate risk (5–19%) | 24 (35.3%) | 23 (40.3%) | 23 (57.5%) | 17 (50%) | |
High risk (≥20%) | 13 (19.1%) | 5 (8.8%) | 5 (12.5%) | 2 (5.9%) |
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Carvalho, M.d.O.; Duque, A.P.; Huguenin, G.V.B.; Felix Mediano, M.F.; Rodrigues Júnior, L.F. Increased Cardiometabolic Risk in Dynapenic Obesity: Results from the Study of Workers’ Health (ESAT). Life 2024, 14, 1174. https://doi.org/10.3390/life14091174
Carvalho MdO, Duque AP, Huguenin GVB, Felix Mediano MF, Rodrigues Júnior LF. Increased Cardiometabolic Risk in Dynapenic Obesity: Results from the Study of Workers’ Health (ESAT). Life. 2024; 14(9):1174. https://doi.org/10.3390/life14091174
Chicago/Turabian StyleCarvalho, Mariana de Oliveira, Alice Pereira Duque, Grazielle Vilas Bôas Huguenin, Mauro Felippe Felix Mediano, and Luiz Fernando Rodrigues Júnior. 2024. "Increased Cardiometabolic Risk in Dynapenic Obesity: Results from the Study of Workers’ Health (ESAT)" Life 14, no. 9: 1174. https://doi.org/10.3390/life14091174