1. Introduction
Globally, cardiovascular diseases (CVD) are the leading causes of mortality and disability [
1]. The prevalence of overall CVD increased from 271 million in 1990 to 523 million in 2019, and mortality due to CVD also increased from 12.1 million to 18.6 million respectively from 1990 to 2019 worldwide [
1]. CVD are responsible for approximately 31% (17.9 million) of all death worldwide, and four out of five (80%) deaths from these diseases were due to heart attacks and strokes [
2].
CVDs are also the major cause of work-related mortality from diseases among seafarers’ onboard ships. A study conducted on British merchant shipping reported that 4601 (19.8%) of 23,291 work-related deaths from 1919 to 2005 were due to CVD [
3]. Another study found that 147 (38.4%) out of the 384 documented deaths at sea were from CVDs [
4]. Various studies have reported that a high percentage of deaths among seafarers was due to CVDs in Polish vessels (62 (19%) of 324 deaths) [
5], on Danish merchant ships (35 (66%) of 53 deaths) [
6], on Singapore ships (45 (65%) of 69 deaths) [
7], and in Isle of Man shipping (16 (80%) of 20 deaths) [
8]. In terms of morbidity, CVDs are among the top five (gastrointestinal, CV, musculoskeletal, dermatological and respiratory disorders) major cause of illness from diseases at sea among seafarers [
9,
10,
11,
12].
CVD burden attributable to modifiable risk factors, namely hypertension, diabetes, overweight or obesity, high low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and cigarette smoking, was increased worldwide [
1]. For instance, globally, 5.02 million death and 160 million disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) were attributed to high BMI in 2019. Further, the number of deaths caused by diabetes and high blood pressure increased respectively from 2.91 million and 6.79 million in 1990 to 6.50 million and 10.8 million in 2019 [
1]. Different studies conducted in the general population [
13,
14,
15] and seafarers [
16,
17,
18,
19,
20] were reported that modifiable CVD risk factors included cigarette smoking, overweight or obesity, hypertension, and diabetes, can be reduced or eliminated by modifying lifestyle behaviors. Studies found that the prevalence of CVD risk factors included overweight or obesity and cigarette smoking to be higher among seafarers when compared to the general population [
21,
22]. There are different reasons that seafarers might have more modifiable CVD risk factors compared to the general population. Their work is both physically and psychologically stressful, working long hours and short average sleep time, prolonged time away from their family. It has been also demonstrated that work-related stress is a main contributor to CVD risk factors [
21,
23].
To mitigate the risk factors and the burden of CVD onboard ships among seafarers, it is important to understand the up-to-date prevalence of modifiable risk factors. Analysis of which modifiable risk factors frequently occur simultaneously is relevant for identifying a high-risk group. Understanding how clustering of CVD risk factors is associated with socio-demographic and occupational characteristics could help for developing effective CVD prevention and control strategies.
The present study has investigated the prevalence of reported modifiable CVD risk factors and their distribution by socio-demographic and occupational characteristics among seafarers. We have also investigated the association between socio-demographic and occupational variables and reported modifiable CVD risk factor clustering among seafarers. This study is probably the first investigation involving a large representative sample of seafarers, and no study has been conducted so far on reported modifiable CVD risk factors and clustering among seafarers. The present work could therefore provide up-to-date, evidence-based information on the prevalence and clustering of modifiable CVD risk factors in seafarers.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design and Setting
In the present study, we conducted a cross-sectional epidemiological study to assess the prevalence and clustering of reported modifiable CVD risk factors among seafarers. This study was conducted from November to December 2020 onboard ships. Currently, nearly 65,000 deep-sea merchant ships operate, carrying an average of 1.3 million seafarers worldwide [
24]. The workforce onboard ship is classified into three broad categories: deck, engine, and galley/support personnel. In 2015, the number of seafarers actively employed at sea, 774,000 officers, and 873,500 ratings (non-officers) [
24].
2.2. Study Participants and Procedures
The study participants were recruited through International Radio Medical Center (C.I.R.M.). C.I.R.M. is an Italian Telemedical Maritime Assistance Service (TMAS) Center and is the organization with the largest experience worldwide in terms of the number of patients assisted onboard ships. C.I.R.M. provides teleconsultations and medical advice to seafarers and passengers regardless of their nationality and flag of the vessels 24 h a day, seven days a week, and 365/366 days a year. C.I.R.M. has more than 5000 ship contacts. Of these, 400 ships were selected randomly from the ships’ list by applying a simple random sampling strategy. In the second step, the research team presented the study’s purpose and protocol to all captains of selected vessels to obtain permission to submit a self-reported anonymous questionnaire and requested the list of seafarers per ship. The captains of 400 ships agreed to participate in the study and provided the active seafarers’ (seafarers on duty) lists per vessel. A list of a total of 8125 seafarers with indication of their names, age and ranking was obtained in a sample of 400 ships. Inclusion criteria were seafarers over the age of 18 and signing the informed consent form. In the subsequent step, a simple random sampling method to select the potential participants from the list based on our eligibility criteria was used.
All crew members were eligible for this study because they are greater than 18 years old. According to the International Labor Organization (ILO), seafarers’ recruitment policy limits seafarers’ age, and anyone who is recruited as a seafarer must be over 18 years of age [
25]. As for the data collection, the research team collaborated with the C.I.R.M. doctors and provided one-day training via videoconferencing for the telemedicine case manager and one crew member per ship on survey administration and how to measure the body weight and height of the participating crew members. Telemedicine Case Managers (TCMs) are already trained medical first responders and have experience working with seafarers’ aboard ships and TMAS doctors or other health professionals. As a result, the questionnaire was sent to telemedicine case managers via their email address by the C.I.R.M., enclosing the invitation letter and informed consent forms. The survey was then administered by trained telemedicine case managers per vessel. The invitation letter contains a brief introduction to the study purpose, procedures, declaration of participant anonymity, and voluntary participation. Besides, the participants were assured of the privacy and confidentiality of the response. The participant who chose to participate provided their signed informed consent before participation in the study.
2.3. Data Collection
Data were collected using a standardized and anonymous questionnaire, and the tool has four core parts. The first part of the questionnaire contains the socio-demographic information included age, gender, educational status, nationality, and marital status. The second section of the questionnaire was occupational characteristics, including rank, worksite, job duration at sea, working hours per week. The third part of the questionnaire contains a history of high blood pressure (hypertension), history of diabetes, physical measurement (weight and height), alcohol consumption, and cigarette smoking status. As for the measured high blood pressure (hypertension) was ascertained with the following questions. Has a doctor or other health professional ever told you that you have high blood pressure (hypertension)? The question has only two options, “Yes” and “No”. Among those who answered “Yes” to the above question, they were further asked, “Are you currently receiving medicine for your high blood pressure (Hypertension)?”. This question also has two choices, “Yes” and “No”. Participants who answered “yes” to the above medicine question were also asked to show any antihypertensive medication they were currently taking. Regarding self-reported hypertension (HTN), in this study, it was defined as having a past hypertensive diagnosis and currently using medication due to hypertension. As for the diabetes mellitus, the self-reported diabetic Mellitus was assessed by asking, “Have you ever been told by a doctor or other health worker that you have raised blood sugar levels or diabetes?” The question has two options “Yes” and “No” and the subjects who answered yes to the above question were further asked, “Are you currently taking medicine for high blood sugar level?” The subjects who were taking medicine for high blood sugar levels were further asked to show any drug currently they were receiving due to diabetic Mellitus. In this study, self-reported diabetic mellitus (DM) was defined as having a past diabetic mellitus diagnosis and a current diabetic mellitus treatment. The current smoking was assessed by asking, “Do you currently smoke any tobacco products?” The question has two choices “Yes,” “No”. The participants who answered “Yes” for the above question were further asked, “do you currently smoked tobacco products daily?” Again, the participants who answered the above question “Yes” further assessed how many years they smoked cigarettes without stopping.
In this study, the current smoking was defined as the participants who smoked cigarettes regularly for a year and had not stopped smoking tobacco products at least six months. According to the World Health Organization (WHO) guideline [
26], the study subjects’ body weight and height were measured. We then calculated body mass index as weight in kilograms (kg) divided by height in meter (m) squared (Weight (kg)/height (m)
2). BMI was also classified into underweight (<18.5 kg/m
2), normal body weight (18.5–24.99 kg/m
2), overweight (25–29.99 kg/m
2) and obesity (≥30 kg/m
2). The questionnaire was designed for the Google survey tool (Google Forms) and the link shared to the C.I.R.M.
2.4. Statistical Analysis
Descriptive statistics included frequency and percentages, were determined for categorical variables to understand the distribution of socio-demographic and occupational characteristics by seafarer’s rank. We used the chi-square test to determine whether the socio-demographic and occupational characteristics were distributed homogenously by rank group and to evaluate their association with the prevalence and clustering of modifiable cardiovascular disease risk factors. The independent-sample t-test was used to examine the mean differences of continuous variables between officers and non-officers. The prevalence and clustering of the modifiable CVD risk factors were determined by Socio-demographic (age, marital status, educational level, and nationality) and occupational (rank, worksite, job duration at sea, and working hours per week) characteristics. The educational level of the participants was grouped into three categories, namely, high (completed college or university), middle (completed high school and technical school), and low (secondary and lower school). Moreover, the rank was categorized into officers (captain, deck, and engine officers) and non-officer (deck crew, engine crew, galley, and others).
The multinomial logistic regression model was performed to identify independent predictors for the cardiovascular disease risk factor clustering. Socio-demographic and occupational variables with p-values less than 0.25 in the univariate analysis were selected and entered multinomial logistic regression model. The clustering of modifiable CVD risk factors (dependent variable) was formed from the four modifiable risk factors: hypertension, diabetic mellitus, current smoking, and overweight or obesity. The categories were: (1) no risk factors, (2) one risk factor, and (3) two or three or four risk factors. Finally, having (1) one risk factor and (≥2) two and more than two risk factors versus (0) no risk factors (reference group) were analyzed in the model. Finally, adjusted Odds Ratio (OR) and 95% of confidence interval (95%CI) were reported.
Statistical analyses were performed using R-software [
27], version 4.0.2 (R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria). R-package ‘
dplyr’ was used for data manipulation [
28], and R-package ‘
summarytools’ was used for frequencies tables, cross-tabulation, and other descriptive statistics [
29]. R-package ‘tidystats’ was used for
chisq.test() function and R-package ‘nnet’ was used for running the multinomial logistic regression model [
30,
31]. A two-tailed
p-value less than 0.05 was considered statistically significant.
4. Discussion
This cross-sectional epidemiological study has assessed the prevalence and clustering of reported modifiable CVD risk factors among seafarers. This study is the first study to evaluate the prevalence and clustering of reported modifiable CVD risk factors among seafarers with a large representative sample. As a result, the prevalence of reported hypertension, diabetes, current smoking, and overweight or obesity was 20.8%, 8.5%, 32.5%, and 44.7%, respectively. The most important modifiable CVD risk factor in both officers and non-officers was overweight or obesity. Compared with the previous studies [
16,
20,
21], the prevalence of hypertension among seafarers was less in our study. There are several reasons why the prevalence of hypertension might have less in our study than in previous studies among seafarers. First, we evaluated self-reported hypertension and did not consider participants who were not taking antihypertensive treatment, although they have high blood pressure levels. These could be the reasons that underestimate the proportion of this risk factor in the present study. However, our finding was almost in line with the study conducted among Iranian seafarers and greater than the study conducted on Italian flag vessels regardless of the difference in methods [
17,
18].
Regardless of the difference in methods, we found a higher prevalence of both self-reported current smoking and diabetes than the previous studies carried out in seafarers [
19,
21]. This study documented that 36.4% and 8.3% of the participants were overweight and obese, respectively. Our result was inconsistent with studies conducted among Danish seafarers [
32,
33], which reported 70.8% and 76.6% overweight and 30.9% obesity. The differences might be due to differences in the methods and data sources. As for the rank, the prevalence of self-reported modifiable CVD risk factors, except diabetes was significantly higher among non-officers compared with officers. This might be due to work-related stress because, as different studies reported that non-officers work is characterized by long working hours, night shift work, short average sleep time, suffer from frequent sleep interruption, irregular working times, and more physically demanding [
9,
17,
34,
35].
Life on board is another environmental stressor for seafarers, especially for non-officers because non-officers stay on board for more extended periods than officers (8.3 months vs. 4.8 months) [
35]. Due to night shift work, lack of sleep, and intense activity, seafarers, especially non-officers, experiencing various coping strategies, including smoking cigarettes, and drinking alcohol during at work. Hence, these physical and Psychosocial stressors and high levels of work-related fatigue, lack of leisure time, and physical inactivity lead to high BMI and other modifiable CVD risk factors. Besides, Work-related stressors can affect the body by activating the neuroendocrine stress pathway, and unhealthy individual lifestyle behaviors (unhealthy diet, smoking, heavy alcohol consumption, and physical inactivity) can indirectly affect the body. Several studies in general population [
36,
37,
38,
39,
40] and seafarers [
34,
41,
42,
43] have reported that work-related stress contributes significantly to modifiable CVD risk factors. A study in the general population reported that work-related stress, characterized by the effort-reward imbalance model, was significantly associated with a high BMI [
44]. In another general population study, also work-related stress, described by the effort-reward imbalance model, was associated with metabolic syndromes [
45].
The present study reports that more than four in six (68.5%) seafarers aged 19 to 70 have at least one of the following modifiable CVD risk factors: reported hypertension, diabetes, current smoking, and overweight or obesity. Besides, the clustering of two or more two CVD risk factors was noted in 28.5% of study participants. We found that significantly higher prevalence of two or more CVD risk factors among non-officers compared with officers. It is suggested that the non-officer work accompanied with the exposure to different work-related stressors may have unfavorable effects on cardiovascular health conditions in non-officers. Our finding was inconsistent with the study conducted on German-flagged ships, which reported a higher prevalence of coronary heart disease (CHD) risk factor clustering (>3 risk factors) among officers than non-officers (crew ranks) [
16]. These differences could be due to differences in methods and CVD risk factor profiles in the study. For example, we did not consider biochemical parameters such as LDL cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, and triglycerides in the present study. Our study documented that the clustering of reported current smoking/overweight or obesity and overweight or obesity/reported hypertension/current smoking was the most among the combination of two and three modifiable CVD risk factors.
We found that 33.4%, 43.5%, and 23.1% of officers and 29.8%, 37.7%, and 32.5% of non-officers respectively had zero, one, and two and more than two CVD risk factors. Another study conducted among seafarers reported that clustering of more than three CHD risk factors was observed in 56.2% of the galley staff, 43.6% of the engine officers, 32.2% of the deck officers, 24.6% of the deck crew, and 17.0% of the engine crew [
16]. In the present study, modifiable CVD risk factors were observed more often in study subjects from EU countries with a prevalence between 9.2% and 45.8%. The significantly higher prevalence of both one and at least two modifiable CVD risk factors in participants from EU- countries compared to non-EU-countries mighty be due to their older age. Participants from EU countries were relatively older than those from non-EU countries. Besides, multinomial logistic regression analysis reported that participants from EU-countries 1.60 times more likely to have two and more than two CVD risk factors than those from non-EU countries. Our result was consistent with the study carried out among seafarers regardless of the differences in method, which revealed that European seafarers were 2.4 times more likely to have more than three CHD risk factors than non-European seafarers [
16]. Another study reported that the proportion of high blood sugar (30%) was observed in the Croatian sailor [
46].
Non-officers in the older age strata (i.e., age of 41 to 50, and age of >51) exhibited a higher prevalence of two and more CVD risk factors compared with the officers. Participants aged 51 and older were approximately four times more likely to have at least two CVD risk factors (OR: 3.92 (95% CI: 2.44–6.29)] than those aged between 19 and 30 years old, while controlling for marital status, rank, educational level, nationality, length of work at sea and working hours per week. This could be due to work-related stressors causing a negative effect on cardiovascular health after a long latency. Older workers may face more work-related stressors, are inactive in physical activity, and more able to complain about the psychological demands of work than younger age groups. Besides, older age is associated with an increased risk of various pathological changes, making older workers more exposed to different physical and psychological stressors than younger workers. A study in seafarers reported increased health problems and fatigue in older workers [
47]. The same study found that the interaction between job demands, and age significantly impacted overall mental health and perceived stress [
47]. Our study showed that non-officers (OR: 1.36 (95% CI: 1.09–1.70)) were more likely than the officers to have two and more than two modifiable CVD risk factors, while controlling for marital status, age, educational level, nationality, job duration at sea and working hours per week. Our result was not in line with the other previous study carried out in seafarers regardless of the difference in methods [
16,
48].
In general, this study revealed that non-officers, older age, married, low level of education, working hours per week, EU nationality, and job duration at sea were positively associated with modifiable CVD risk factor clustering, compared to their counterparts. Hence, the present findings may help to develop modifiable CVD risk factors prevention and control strategies onboard ships. As for intervention, for example, non-officers, those who are married, older seafarers (≥51 years), who work long hours per week, those with a low level of education, who have a long duration of work at sea, and seafarers from EU- countries could be screened for modifiable CVD risk factors, in particular for clustering of CVD risk factors. Additionally, these groups should be targeted for early prevention programs to reduce risk factors and prevent cardiovascular diseases, as they are more likely to have a modifiable CVD risk factor clustering.
Telemedicine approach prevention program can be more appropriate for screening the high-risk groups and follow-up visits at sea because Seafarers are hundreds of miles away from the nearest aid point regarding healthcare. Studies have reported that telemedicine has proven effective by providing advice, diagnosis, and treatment to seafarers during emergencies at sea [
49]. Besides, it is possible to follow up visits and regular medical examinations onboard ships through telemedicine using new technologies, such as high-speed internet and video conferencing [
50,
51]. Promoting a healthy lifestyle or behavioral modification efforts is most important to reducing CVD risk factors. Hence, the International Maritime Organization (IMO), together with other responsible bodies and stakeholders, should take into account strategies related to cigarette smoking reduction, including smoking restrictions on board ships. In 2006, the International Labor Organization (ILO) [
25] adopted the Maritime Labor Convention (MLC) 2006, and it entered into force on 20 August 2013. In chapter five (title two), the 2006 Convention deals with the timetable working hours and rest hours for seafarers and clearly stated that seafarers’ working hours are eight per day with one day of rest per week. However, our study reported that 51.2% and 22.9% of the participants worked 57–70 h and 71+ h per week, respectively. Therefore, the Convention 2006 has not yet been fully applied related to working hours of seafarers on board ships. Hence, the ILO and other responsible bodies should pay attention to its enforcement related to working hours according to the guideline because long working hours per week was one of the independent predictors for modifiable CVD risk factor clustering. As for physical activity, the working conditions of seafarers does not motivate them to carry out daily physical training as on land because there are sudden climate changes, accidents, and physical and psychological stress. However, planned health education regarding physical activity through telemedicine and the provision of simple and easy-to-use mobile applications [
52] could encourage the seafarers to practice daily physical exercises to be physically active and reduce the chance of being overweight or obese.
Limitation of this study: this study was a cross-sectional study, and the study design prevents us from determining the causality or temporal relationship between modifiable CVD risk factor clustering and CVD. In the present study, we assessed self-reported modifiable CVD risk factors, except overweight or obesity. We did not include participants who were not on treatment despite having high blood pressure or high blood sugar. Therefore, these could underestimate the prevalence of hypertension or diabetes. Current smoking may be subject to reporting bias as it depends only on the participants’ responses. Besides, those who did not smoke regularly were excluded. Hence, the prevalence of current smoking may be underestimated.