Sports, Volume 12, Issue 1 (January 2024) – 37 articles

The symbiotic relationship between sports practice and psychological well-being has, in recent times, surged to the forefront of academic and public attention. The aim of this narrative review is to comprehensively explore the intricate pathways linking physical engagement in sports to its subsequent impacts on mental health and synthesize the multifarious effects of sports on psychological health, offering insights for integrating physical and psychological strategies to enhance well-being. From neurobiological underpinnings to therapeutic applications, this comprehensive manuscript provides an in-depth dive into the multifaceted world of sports and psychology. Highlighting evidence-based interventions, this review aspires to offer actionable insights for practitioners, athletes, and individuals alike, advocating for a holistic approach to mental well-being. This manuscript highlights the profound impact of sports on mental health, emphasizing its role in emotional regulation, resilience, cognitive function, and treating psychological conditions. It details how sports induce neurochemical changes, enhance brain functions like memory and learning, and aid against cognitive decline. This review also notes the benefits of regular exercise in mood improvement, stress management, and social skill enhancement, particularly when combined with mindfulness practices. It underscores the importance of considering cultural and gender perspectives in sports psychology, advocating for an integrated physical–psychological approach to promote overall well-being. Full article

Generating large mechanical power during actions such as sprinting or jumping is a crucial factor in many sports. These types of actions require a good warm-up activation. Capacitive-Resistive Electric Transfer (CRET) is a non-invasive therapy based on the application of radio frequency electric currents within the range of 300 kHz–1.2 MHz to accelerate tissue metabolic activity. This study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of adding CRET to an active warm-up protocol in young adult athletes. For the double-blind randomized clinical trial, 60 healthy athletes were recruited and divided into an Experimental group (EG) and a Sham group (SG). EG received a CRET protocol in addition to an active warm-up. SG carried out the same warm-up but with a placebo CRET. The main outcome measures were isometric extension force, countermovement-jump (CMJ), 30 m-sprint test, and surface electromyography (sEMG). There is no statistically significant interaction (group–time) for any of the variables studied. Significant main effects for time were found in isometric extension force (p = 0.008); 30 m sprint (p = 0.017); rectus femoris sEMG during CMJ (p = 0.002); vastus lateralis sEMG during CMJ (p = 0.012); vastus medialis during CMJ (p = 0.010) and rectus femoris sEMG during the 30 m sprint test (p = 0.012). Non-significant differences between means are observed in the isometric extension force (48.91 EG; 10.87 SG) and 30 m sprint (−0.13 EG; −0.04 SG) variables. To conclude, a non-significant tendency was observed in sprint and quadriceps strength following CRET therapy, compared to the individuals’ pre-treatment state. Future research should use more treatment sessions to observe this tendency. Full article

Introduction: This research was performed to examine the effects of air and oxygen prebreathing on bubble formation, flow-mediated dilatation, and psychomotor performance after scuba dives. Methods: Twelve scuba divers performed two dives using a gas mixture of oxygen, nitrogen, and helium (trimix). In a randomized protocol, they breathed air or oxygen 30 min before the trimix dives. Venous bubble formation, flow-mediated dilatation, and psychomotor performance were evaluated. The participants solved three psychomotor tests: determining the position of a light signal, coordination of complex psychomotor activity, and simple arithmetic operations. The total test solving time, minimum single-task solving time, and median solving time were analyzed. Results: The bubble grade was decreased in the oxygen prebreathing protocol in comparison to the air prebreathing protocol (1.5 vs. 2, p < 0.001). The total test solving times after the dives, in tests of complex psychomotor coordination and simple arithmetic operations, were shorter in the oxygen prebreathing protocol (25 (21–28) vs. 31 (26–35) and 87 (82–108) vs. 106 (90–122) s, p = 0.028). Conclusions: In the oxygen prebreathing protocol, the bubble grade was significantly reduced with no change in flow-mediated dilatation after the dives, indicating a beneficial role for endothelial function. The post-dive psychomotor speed was faster in the oxygen prebreathing protocol. Full article

This two-phase study involved the design, development, and evaluation of netball-specific high-intensity interval training sessions (Netball-HIIT) for use with netballers of varied ages and abilities. In Phase 1 (2020), a systematic analysis of netball GPS data from 30 netball players and gameplay video footage (10 h) was conducted, followed by the design and testing of five 8 min Netball-HIIT sessions involving 100 netball players (age 21 ± 8.44 years; Australia). In Phase 2 (2021), the feasibility and preliminary efficacy of delivering one Netball-HIIT session each week for five weeks was assessed using a two-armed, dose-matched, randomized, controlled feasibility study with netball players (born in 2010) (Netball HIIT n = 15; Netball Knee Program: NKP n = 15). Cardiorespiratory and muscular fitness was assessed at baseline and 6 weeks. Data were analyzed using linear mixed models and Cohen’s d effect sizes. Netball-HIIT sessions were highly rated by players, and higher average (139 bpm) and peak heart rates (156 bpm) were detected amongst Netball-HIIT participants (KNP = 127 bpm and 152 bpm). We observed a large effect for cardiorespiratory fitness (+2.4 laps, d = 0.89), and a small to medium effect for muscular fitness (push-ups +1.2, d = 0.49; standing jump +0.8 cm, d = 0.36) in favor of Netball-HIIT, suggesting that coach-led Netball-HIIT may provide a time-efficient and effective training component for use in netball. Full article

Background: The Fascial Distortion Model (FDM) is a relatively new manual therapy approach in the field of musculoskeletal physical therapy, and its potential effectiveness in treating chronic ankle instability (CAI) remains unexplored. Methods: A randomized controlled trial with 23 participants was conducted. Patients were randomly assigned to either the FDM + balance–strength training (BST) group (n = 8), receiving extra FDM sessions weekly in addition to two sessions of BST, or the BST group (n = 7). Healthy controls (n = 8) did not receive any treatment and participated only in pre- and post-test measurements. Objective measurements including Y-Balance Test Lower Quarter (YBT-LQ), Flamingo Balance Test (FBT), Weight-Bearing Lunge Test (WBLT), ankle joint range of motion (ROM), and Cumberland Ankle Instability Tool (CAIT) were recorded at baseline and the end of the intervention. The results demonstrated significant differences between the FDM + BST and BST groups for supination ROM (p = 0.008) and similarly for WBLT (p = 0.041), FBT (p = 0.40), YBT-LQ (p = 0.023), and CAIT score (p = 0.008). Moreover, while both groups demonstrated significant improvement at the post-test compared with their pre-test for plantarflexion and pronation ROM, WBLT, and CAIT score, the FDM + BST group demonstrated significant improvements in supination ROM, FBT, and YBT-LQ. Conclusion: Our study suggests that the addition of FDM concepts to a BST may lead to enhanced improvements in ankle ROM, static and dynamic balance, and self-reported outcomes in individuals with CAI compared to BST. Full article

Vitamin D is essential for the optimal health of the skeletal system. However, this vitamin also plays a role in other functions of the human body, such as muscle, immune, and inflammatory functions. Some studies have reported that adequate levels of vitamin D improve immune system function by reducing the levels of certain pro-inflammatory cytokines, which can protect against the risk of post-exercise illness. This systematic review aims to investigate the effects of vitamin D supplementation on pro-inflammatory cytokines in athletes. This study was conducted using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. A literature search was conducted in SPORTDiscus, PubMed, ScienceDirect, and Google Scholar up to 1 October 2023. The quality of the articles was evaluated using the Risk of Bias 2 Tool. After searching the databases, a total of 7417 studies were identified, 6 of which met the eligibility criteria, and their outcomes were presented. The six studies included 176 participants. All six studies are randomized control trials, including a total of 176 subjects, primarily men (81%). Regarding the types of athletes, most participants were endurance athletes. Our investigation in this systematic review demonstrated that out of the six studies, only two of them reported significant changes in IL-6 and TNF-α levels after taking high-dose vitamin D. Other studies did not present any significant changes after vitamin D supplementation in athletes with respect to IL-6 and TNF-α levels. Further studies are needed to determine the effectiveness of vitamin D supplementation for athletes as a disease-prone community. Full article

Maximal strength is a significant factor in achieving peak performance and injury prevention in athletes. In individualization strategies for the efficient development of athletes, it is necessary to consider the respective components separately. The purpose of this study was to systematically examine the effects of the different cycle phases on isometric, isokinetic, and dynamic maximum strength. A systematic literature review was conducted; databases were searched from January 1960 to September 2023. The included studies focused on the expression of maximal strength in the earlier follicular phase as well as at least one comparative phase. Of the initial 707 articles identified, 22 met the selection criteria and were included. The studies considered a total of 433 subjects. Our results revealed medium effects (weighted mean standardized mean difference (SMD) = 0.60; seven studies) for isometric maximal strength in favor of the late follicular phase, small effects (weighted mean SMD = 0.39; five studies) for isokinetic maximal strength in favor of the ovulation phase, and small effects (weighted mean SMD = 0.14; three studies) for dynamic maximal strength in favor of the late follicular phase. The results indicate that the early follicular phase is unfavorable for all strength classes. Peak performance in isometric strength is seen in the late follicular phase, whereas isokinetic strength peaks during ovulation. Dynamic strength is optimal in the late follicular phase. Full article

Relative age effects (RAEs) are commonly associated with advantages for older athletes. However, a variety of benefits attributed to ‘advantage reversals’ have been observed among relatively younger professional athletes. Considering psychosocial development as a proposed mechanism, the purpose of this study was twofold: (1) To explore an association between developmental assets (i.e., facilitators of positive youth development [PYD]) and RAEs; (2) To assess whether overall developmental asset levels are protective against sport dropout. The Developmental Assets Profile© was distributed to members of a one-year cohort of post-adolescent, female soccer players from Ontario, Canada. The presence of differences between groups of relatively older (H1; n = 64) and younger (H2; n = 57) participants and developmental asset scales were assessed using discriminant analysis. A binary logistic regression was conducted to assess whether overall developmental asset levels are protective against sport dropout, with consideration of relevant factors. Findings suggest that relatively younger, female players score higher in two internal categories: commitment to learning and positive values. The overall developmental asset scores were not found to be protective against dropout. This study provides preliminary, albeit cautious, support that ‘advantage reversals’ may be in part associated with enhanced PYD resulting from developmental sport experiences. Full article

Introduction: The purpose of this research was to analyse relationships between personality traits and the use of selected dietary supplements among Polish athletes training in team sports. This subject matter has not been explored in prior research. Material and Methods: This research was carried out among a group of 213 athletes (men) in the 18–36 age range, with the implementation of a proprietary validated questionnaire for the use of dietary supplements and the NEO-PI-R inventory (Neuroticism–Extraversion–Openness Personality Inventory—Revised). Statistical analyses were performed with the Kruskal–Wallis and Mann–Whitney tests, assuming the following level of significance: α = 0.05. Results: It was shown that athletes who periodically and regularly consumed isotonic drinks, as well as energy bars and gels, were characterised by a lower level of neuroticism than those who did not consume them. Athletes who periodically took multivitamin preparations were characterised by a lower level of extraversion and openness, and those periodically using multimineral preparations were characterised by a higher level of agreeableness than those who did not use these agents. Athletes not taking creatine were characterised by the lowest level of conscientiousness among the study participants. The use of protein nutrients, probiotics and caffeine was not associated with any personality traits in the athletes. Conclusions: Further relationships of the Big Five personality traits were demonstrated with the use of effective dietary supplements by athletes; the most unambiguous correlations were described for neuroticism and conscientiousness in such a way that the use of isotonic drinks, as well as energy bars and gels, was connected with a low level of neuroticism, while the use of creatine was connected with high conscientiousness. Full article

Scientific evidence proves the importance of physical activity and sports in decreasing morbidity and mortality rates and health-related costs. Public and stakeholder involvement is vital in the sustainable promotion of physical activity and sports practice in local settings. The aim of this study was to identify the levels of physical activity and sports habits of the population of the city Cartagena (Spain). The short version of the International Questionnaire of Physical Activity was used (IQPA) and a virtual questionnaire on sports habits was sent to 1450 citizens. Responses from 248 people (162 men and 86 women), with ages ranging from 18 to 77 years old (average age = 41 ± 17 years old), were collected. The results showed low to moderate levels of physical activity with no considerable differences between men and women for the population of Cartagena. Women were shown to engage in higher intensity practice of physical activity, whereas men were shown to be more consistent and have a significantly higher participation rate in sports events, both those with free entry and those that require the acquisition of a ticket. Men were also shown to have a higher rate of media sport use. This information may assist in the development of effective political actions to promote physical activity and sports in local settings. Full article

This study aimed (1) to assess the validity of a modified method (M_mod) based on heart rate (HR)—oxygen uptake (VO₂) regression functions to calculate total energy costs (W_total) and aerobic (W_aer) and anaerobic alactic energy contribution (W_pcr) and (2) to analyse the physiological and energetic demands of high-level pommel horse routines (PH routines). The M_mod was developed because VO₂ measurements are limited during high-level PH routines. Answering Part 1, nine male artistic gymnasts performed a PH routine where energy costs were calculated from VO₂ measurements and then compared with energy costs determined from the HR- VO₂ regressions of M_mod’s two additional tests. Using the concordance correlation coefficient (CCC) and Deming regression, W_aer (CCC = 0.955), W_pcr (CCC = 0.999), and W_total (CCC = 0.990) show substantial to almost perfect validity without constant or proportional bias. Data from eight further gymnasts performing a high-level PH routine and a graded exercise test (GXT), as well as four data sets from Part 1, were used to determine physiological and energetic demands using M_mod. VO₂ and HR during PH routines reached 86.1% and 90.4% of the maximal values during GXT. W_pcr was 47.0%, anaerobic lactic energy contribution (W_blc) was 29.7%, and W_aer was 23.3% of W_total required during PH routines. Summarising the energetic demands of high-level PH routines, they are mainly anaerobic, where W_pcr provides the largest energy share. W_aer provides a substantial part of W_total and should therefore also be specifically trained. Full article

Classical and sports massages are commonly used interventions, but their comparative effects on muscle stiffness remain unclear. Classical massage is more general and uses light to moderate pressure, and its main purpose is relaxation. Sports massage, on the other hand, is more specialized and targets the unique needs of massaged individuals using moderate to firm pressure. This study aimed to evaluate the impacts of classical and sports massages on the stiffness of the erector spinae (ES) and upper trapezius (UT) muscles. Fifteen recreationally active young women, aged 22.9 ± 1.2 years, underwent a randomized cross-over study (with three conditions). Participants received either a five-minute classical or sports massage or a passive rest as a control on distinct days. Muscle stiffness was assessed using shear-wave elastography. The ES shear modulus displayed a significant time effect (p < 0.001; η² = 0.515) without noticeable differences between the conditions, and the time × massage-type interactions approached statistical significance (F = 2.014; p = 0.073). There was also a large and statistically significant effect of the time on the UT (F = 11.127; p < 0.001; η² = 0.443). We could not prove that classical and sports massages reduced muscle stiffness. The absence of significant differences might be attributed to the specific intervention parameters (massage duration of 5 min) and the small, only young women sample size. Given some tendencies towards significant effects, larger sample sizes are needed to further investigate this research question. Full article

Background: Running-related injuries (RRI) are common in novice runners. Reducing early training running volume with strengthening activities may improve RRI without impeding running performance. Objectives: 1. Gather feasibility data for a randomized, controlled trial comparing a strengthening-based program to a conventional running program; 2. Assess RRI; and 3. Assess running performance. Methods: Seventy-four university students (38 females, 21 ± 2.3 years, 68.2 ± 10.8 kg, BMI: 22.6 ± 2.97), all novice runners, were randomized in two groups, i.e., a strengthening and running group (INT) and a running group (CON). The completed sessions, RRI, dropout, and maximal aerobic speed were recorded through an online application. Results: The INT group had 52.6% attrition, while the CON group had 41.7%. The INT group had 56.6% adherence, while the CON group had 45.7%. The Chi-square test showed no significant difference in RRI incidence across groups (CHI² = 2.958, p value = 0.08). A two-way ANOVA showed no significant difference in maximal aerobic speed across groups (p = 0.822) or before and after training (p = 0.304). Conclusions: This pilot study confirmed the feasibility of this randomized, controlled trial with a needed sample size of 194. However, novice runners had greater attrition rates when starting. Based on those limited data, strengthening activities that replaced running volume did not improve RRI or maximal aerobic speed. Full article

Proper orthosis design may help youth baseball players develop safer pitching mechanics to prevent elbow injuries. This study evaluated the impact of a custom elbow orthosis on pitching biomechanics and adverse events. Ten 11–12-year-old players (mean age 11.5 years) from a regional league team were recruited. The inclusion criteria were at least two years of baseball experience. Six players were randomly assigned to the orthosis group, with four in the control group. Anthropometric data and baseline characteristics were recorded. A video analysis assessed elbow flexion angle during pitching at baseline and at 2 months. The frequency of orthosis wear was also tracked. Adverse events during twice-weekly practices were documented. Post-study surveys evaluated orthosis comfort, stability, and safety perceptions. In the orthosis group (n = 6), four participants showed improved elbow flexion angle, and two of the six participants showed almost no change. The overall median difference was 23.5°. In the control group (n = 4), three participants showed improvement, with a median improvement of 5.5°. Twelve adverse events, including pain, were reported by players not wearing orthoses, whereas no events occurred with orthosis use. Individual players in the control group or who did not wear the orthosis correctly experienced multiple episodes of pain from pitching over the study period. This preliminary study indicates a custom elbow orthosis can optimize pitching biomechanics and prevent adverse events in youth baseball players over the course of two months. Full article

This study aimed to quantify the relationships among internal training load, wellness, physiological, isokinetic profile, and technical performance and assessed changes before and after a six-week pre-season structured combining physical fitness, small-sided-game and skill-based training program in young soccer players. Forty-five national-level young male soccer players (16.8 ± 0.9 years) were evaluated. There were no significant correlations between the wellness index and the physiological, isokinetic, or specific soccer skill parameters. Moderate correlations were observed between fatigue and stress (r = 0.47, moderate, p < 0.01), fatigue and average muscle soreness (r = 0.38, moderate, p = 0.01), and a large correlation between average stress and muscle soreness (r = 0.53, large, p < 0.01) were presented. All physiological, isokinetic, and technical parameters improved after a six-week pre-season training program (0.1 to −61.0%). Significant alterations in the physiological domain were observed after a six-week period, particularly in the fatigue index of the Bangsbo sprint test, YO-YO IR1 performance, and YO-YO peak La^- (p < 0.01; −61.0%, 25.3%, and −19.8%, respectively). As such, the implementation of structured training and the monitoring of stress responses can lead to appropriate adaptation and balancing in the psychological and physical well-being of young national-level soccer players, particularly in the pre-season period. Full article

This study investigated PAPE effects of two conditioning activities (CA) and recovery times on the peak jumping power (PP) of elite female volleyball athletes. Players performed CA separately: three sets of three repetitions of back squats with 85% of 1RM (BS) or one set of five depth drops (DD). PP was measured with countermovement (CMJ) and squat jumps (SJ) before (pre-test) and two minutes (post-test 1) and six hours (post-test 2) after each CA. BS significantly reduced PP at post-test 1 (CMJ and SJ: p < 0.04, d between −0.36 and −0.28). At post-test 2, following BS, PP for both jump forms was significantly greater than at post-test 1 (p < 0.001, d between 0.54 and 0.55) and at pre-test (p < 0.048, d between 0.21 and 0.30). DD increased PP significantly (CMJ and SJ p < 0.05, d between 0.40 and 0.41) relative to pre-test at post-test 2 (there was no significant difference between pre-test and post-test 1). Comparing BS with DD, there were no significant differences (p > 0.05). The greatest PAPE effects were observed six hours after BS. CA are recommended for female athletes to improve jumping performance, but individual responses should be determined prior to use. Full article

The magnitude and direction of inter-limb asymmetries in a change of direction (COD) have increased interest in scientific research in recent years. This present study aimed to investigate the magnitude of asymmetries in an elite youth female basketball sample (n = 18, age = 17.79 ± 0.67 y) and determine its directionality using force platform technology. Participants performed 70° and 180° COD tests analyzing the following variables: time, ground contact time (GCT) and ground reaction forces (GRF) along the anterior–posterior, mediolateral, and vertical axes. Inter-limb asymmetries were evident in both COD tests, with substantial differences observed between limbs (p < 0.01). The asymmetry values ranged from 3.02% to 24.31% in COD 180° and from 1.99% to 21.70% in COD 70°, with anterior–posterior GRF consistently exhibiting the highest asymmetry magnitude. Additionally, the directionality exhibited variability between the tests, indicating poor agreement and suggesting the independent directionality of asymmetries across tasks. Moreover, players required more time to complete the COD 180°, the GCT was noticeably longer for the COD 180° than for the COD 70°, and GRF varied across the axis, suggesting that players adapt uniquely to the specific demands of each task. The utilization of force platforms presents a comprehensive approach to assess asymmetries and COD variables performance variables which are “angle-dependent”, which could have important implications for COD screening and effective training interventions. Full article

The objective of this study was to analyse the correlations among the sports psychological profile, competitive anxiety, self-confidence and the flow state of young football players. Additionally, potential distinctions based on age category, competitive level and field position were explored. This study included 328 participants divided into two groups: Group 1, 14–15 year olds, and Group 2, 16–18 year olds (M = 15.85; SD = 1.44). Data were collected by using the Psychological Inventory of Sports Execution (IPED), the Revised Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 (CSAI-2R) and the Flow State Scale (FSS). The findings revealed positive associations between the sports psychological profile and self-confidence, as well as with the flow state. Conversely, competitive anxiety demonstrated negative relationships with the sports psychological profile, self-confidence and the state of flow. Moreover, superior scores were observed in the analysed variables for the older age category and higher competitive level, with no notable disparities based on field positions. These results underscore the interplay of psychological factors in the performance of football players and underline distinctions among players according to their category (age and level). This emphasises the importance of scrutinising these variables in athletes to comprehend their profiles and enable targeted interventions aimed at enhancing their psychological resources for competitive scenarios. Full article

Ice hockey is a high-risk sport known for its dominant macho culture. The purpose of this study was to examine experiences surrounding medication use among male, elite ice hockey players in Norway. A mixed-method design was employed, which first examined medications registered on doping control forms (DCFs) (n = 177) and then involved semi-structured focus group interviews (n = 5) with elite athletes (n = 25). Overall, 68% of the DCFs contained information about ≥1 medication. Among the most registered medications were NSAIDs and hypnotics (20% and 19% of all DCFs, respectively). During the interviews, numerous athletes reported using analgesics to manage injuries and pain caused by the sport, often being motivated by sacrificing themselves for the team during important matches and playoffs. Hypnotics were used due to high cumulative stress due to heavy training and competition load, late-night matches, and playing in a semi-professional league. Athlete support personnel (ASP), including physicians and trainers, were the athletes’ main sources of information. The athletes often displayed a profound and non-critical trust in the advice and products provided to them by their team physician. The findings indicate that male, elite ice hockey players, through their excessive and somewhat ignorant use of medications, expose themselves to health risks and inadvertent doping. Full article

The primary purpose of the current investigation was to perform an intensity distribution analysis of a collegiate cross-country (CC) competition, with a secondary purpose to compare race times (RT) with modeled performance times (MPT). Participants completed an incremental treadmill test to determine gas exchange threshold (GET), while the three-minute all-out test was conducted on a 400 m outdoor track to determine critical velocity (CV) and D prime (D′). GET and CV were used as physiological markers for the intensity zones based on heart rate (HR) and running velocity (RV), while CV and D′ were used to determine modeled performance times. Participants wore a Global Positioning System (GPS) watch and heart rate (HR) monitor during competition races. Statistically, less time was spent in HR Zone 1 (12.1% ± 13.7%) compared to Zones 2 (37.6% ± 30.2%) and 3 (50.3% ± 33.7%), while a statically greater amount of time was spent in RV Zone 2 (75.0% ± 20.7%) compared to Zones 1 (8.4% ± 14.0%) and 3 (16.7% ± 19.1%). RTs (1499.5 ± 248.5 seconds (s)) were statistically slower compared to MPTs (1359.6 ± 192.7 s). The observed differences in time spent in each zone are speculated to be related to the influence of environmental conditions on internal metrics and difference in the kinetics of HR and running velocity. Differences in RTs and MPTs are likely due to the MPT equation modeling all-out performance and not considering race strategies. Full article

Different training intensity distributions (TIDs) have been proposed to improve cycling performance, especially for high-competition athletes. The objectives of this study were to analyze the effect of a 16-week pyramidal training intensity distribution on somatic and power variables in recreational cyclists and to explore the training zone with the greatest impact on performance improvement. The sample consisted of 14 male recreational cyclists aged 41.00 ± 7.29 years of age. A number of somatic variables were measured. During an incremental protocol, power at a 4 mMol·L⁻¹ blood lactate concentration (P4), corresponding power to body mass ratio (P/W P4), and heart rate (HR P4) were also measured. Among the somatic variables, the percentage of fat mass showed the greatest improvement between moments (p < 0.001, d = 0.52). Both P4 (p < 0.001, d = 1.21) and P/W P4 (p < 0.001, d = 1.54) presented a significant increase between moments. The relative improvement in P4 (% P4) showed a significant correlation (R_s = 0.661, p = 0.038) and relationship (R² = 0.61, p = 0.008) mainly with training zone Z2 (blood lactate levels ≥ 2 and <4 mMol·L⁻¹). It seems that spending more time in Z2 promoted an improvement in both somatic and power variables in recreational cyclists. Full article

Our study aimed to combine psychological and physical factors to explore the impact of the menstrual cycle on performance in elite academy women soccer players through weekly monitoring. Eighteen elite academy women soccer players were monitored. Players reported daily through an online anonymous survey if they were in menstruation. Players answered the Hooper Questionnaire daily, performed an Illinois Agility Test (IAT) twice a week, and rated their perceived exertion (RPE) after every training session. Tests were associated with a complete menstrual cycle reported through the online anonymous survey to determine the two weeks of the follicular phase and the two weeks of the luteal phase. Of the 18 players, 10 completed all requirements and were retained for analyses. IAT did not show significant differences throughout the menstrual cycle (p = 0.633). Fatigue (p = 0.444), Stress (p = 0.868), Sleep (p = 0.398), DOMS (delayed onset muscle soreness; p = 0.725), and Hooper Index (p = 0.403) did not show significant differences either. RPE was also comparable across the cycle (p = 0.846). Our results failed to demonstrate that hormonal variation during the menstrual cycle influenced psychological and physical markers of performance. Full article

Sports participation and the risk of osteoarthritis (OA) have been a concern for decades. Few research efforts have been dedicated to clarify this issue for females, although they are considered at greater risk of developing OA than males. In contrast, several reviews have established an association between sports participation and OA for males. The aim of the systematic review was to assess the association between OA and participation in popular sports for females. PubMed, Embase, and Google Scholar were searched and yielded 578 articles. Nine eligible studies were included and covered ballet (age range: 19–54 years), running or tennis (age range: 40–65 years), Olympic sports (age range: not specified), volleyball (age range: 16.0 ± 0.8 to 46.8 ± 5.1 years), and cross-country skiing (age range: 15 to ≥60 years). For females, participating in sports at an elite level was associated with a higher risk of OA and an increased need for surgical treatment. At non-elite level, it was associated with a higher risk of OA, but it did not materialize to an increased risk for surgical treatment. Few studies compared females and males, and these studies suggested that sex did not affect the risk of developing OA from participating in sports. Nevertheless, to isolate the precise effect of sports participation on the development of OA remains difficult as injuries are common among athletes and are independently associated with an increased risk of OA. Full article

This study investigated the impact of resistance training with blood flow restriction during rest (BFR_rest) on the accuracy of estimated repetitions to failure (ERF). It also explored associations between error in ERF and mean concentric velocity (MCV) along with physiological responses. In a randomised cross-over study, 18 male trainers (23.4 ± 2.7 years) performed three sets of squats at 70% of their one-repetition maximum until failure. One session integrated BFR_rest, while another employed traditional passive inter-set rest (TRAD) during the 3 min inter-set rest intervals. Cardiorespiratory and metabolic measures were taken in the inter-set recovery periods. The results revealed no significant differences between BFR_rest and TRAD in terms of ERF and error in ERF. A notable set effect for ERF was observed, with a greater ERF during set 1 compared to sets 2 and 3 (p < 0.001). Additionally, a lower error in ERF was observed during sets 2 and 3 compared to set 1 (p < 0.001). Error in ERF were strongly associated with the respiratory exchange ratio, and moderately associated with end-tidal carbon dioxide partial pressure, carbon dioxide output, and MCV variables. Notably, the precision of ERF seems to be predominantly influenced by indicators of physiological stress rather than the incorporation of BFR_rest. Full article

Background: Recreational fitness sports are popular worldwide and rank first among organised sports. This study aims to bridge a knowledge gap by examining which exercises are most prone to causing pain symptoms, as a possible precursor for injury, and analysing the body regions that are most frequently affected. Methods: Using an online questionnaire, 20 demographic and training-specific items and 49 sport-specific exercises were recorded. Frequent exercises as well as the incidence and distribution of pain symptoms that the athletes experienced during or in relation to their training were evaluated. Results: The study assessed common exercises and documented the frequency and distribution of pain symptoms experienced by athletes during or in relation to their training. A total of 1387 respondents were included in this study. Of these, 732 (53.1%) experienced pain during their fitness training, with 333 (24.2%) being female and 397 (22.3%) being male. The method of creating a training plan showed a significant influence (p < 0.001): athletes who devised their own plans reported pain or instability more frequently than those in the comparison groups. Guided exercises on machines resulted in the lowest frequency of pain (11.54%), while exercises with free weights were associated with the highest pain rate among respondents (19.94%). Specifically, exercises such as the back squat, deadlift, bench press, and triceps dips were identified as the exercises most commonly associated with pain. The most frequently reported pain region was the shoulder, followed by the lower back and knees. Conclusion: The findings reveal a significant number of unreported pain symptoms. The disparity between rigorous training volumes and the absence of professional care frequently leads to injuries and pain. It is incumbent upon sports medicine to investigate the root causes of these complaints (pain or instability) to implement preventive measures against potential injuries. Full article

Background: this observational and cross-sectional study aimed to describe training, pharmacological ergogenic aids, dehydration, and nutrition strategies during a peak week in competitive bodybuilders and monitor changes that occurred across this period. Methods: Ten amateur bodybuilders were followed during a peak week phase and one day post-contest. Training, diet, dehydration protocol, anabolic steroid use, and nonsteroidal agents were recorded, prescribed, and supervised by the same coach in charge. Body composition, resting metabolic rate, and circumferences were assessed by the research team. Results: Overall, during the peak week phase, the use of anabolic steroids, diuretics, and other pharmacological aids was high among athletes, and the dose and frequency were similar between competitors. Despite the use of supraphysiological doses of drugs, bodybuilders displayed a statistical reduction of lean mass markers, resting metabolic rate, and fat mass markers, possibly influenced by the performance of high volumes of aerobic exercise combined with dietary energy restriction. Conclusions: The main findings of this study display that the coach in charge of Brazilian bodybuilders applied the same anabolic steroid, diuretic, and other pharmacological protocols for all competitors. Moreover, the protocols employed by bodybuilders did not fully attenuate the loss of lean mass during the peak week period. Full article

Background: To establish the 1-year prevalence of sports injuries and explore associations of various factors with a sports injury in Japanese collegiate athletes. Methods: The data were collected through a web-based survey of Japanese collegiate athletes associated with UNIVAS (Japan Association for University Athletics and Sport). The survey questions asked about athletes’ personal characteristics, sports participation, and injuries sustained within the previous year. Follow-up questions on the details regarding the three most serious injuries were asked. Differences in proportions of athlete characteristics between males and females and between injured and uninjured were explored with the chi-square test. Factors associated with sustaining an injury were determined with regression analysis. Results: The prevalence of injuries among Japanese collegiate athletes is high, and most of the sustained injuries require athletes to take a considerable time off training and competition indicating their severity. Athletes from year two and higher at the university, overweight or obese, training more often per week, and with longer sports experience were more likely to sustain an injury within the previous year. Conclusions: There is compelling evidence to suggest that excessive training and insufficient recovery may be contributing to their increased risk of injury. These findings underscore the importance of implementing evidence-based training programs and recovery strategies to mitigate injury risk and optimize performance outcomes among this population. Full article

Research into women’s competitive soccer matches has shown distance and high-speed running (HSR) reductions over time, but the effects on some GPS-derived metrics have not been investigated. The purpose of this project was to examine the utility of common GPS metrics for indicating fatigue from the T-SAFT⁹⁰ match simulation in collegiate soccer players. Unlike in competitive matches, changes to these metrics occurred as early as 15 min, with HSR, average and max speed, and speed intensity (SI) exhibiting significant declines. HSR and SI were even further decreased in later periods, with HSR lower in minutes 30–40 (T_30–35 and T_35–40) than T_15–20 and lower in T_70–85 than T_45–60. SI showed a similar pattern of continued decline, reaching its lowest value in the last three time segments. Accelerations and decelerations were also decreased beginning at T_15–20 and T_20–25, respectively, but the fatigue index (FI), dynamic stress load (DSL), and step balance (SB) were unchanged. It can be concluded that in contrast to competitive matches where players can dictate their own intensity, a match simulation may result in a quicker onset of fatigue, but not all GPS-derived values change as expected in fatiguing environments. Coaches and sports scientists may use these findings to properly monitor fatigue in real time. Full article

Exercising with elevated core temperatures may negatively affect autonomic nervous system (ANS) function. Additionally, longer training duration under higher core temperatures may augment these negative effects. This study evaluated the relationship between exercise training duration and 24 h ANS recovery and function at ≥37 °C, ≥38 °C and ≥39 °C core temperature thresholds in a sample of male Division I (D1) collegiate American football athletes. Fifty athletes were followed over their 25-week season. Using armband monitors (Warfighter Monitor^TM, Tiger Tech Solutions, Inc., Miami, FL, USA), core temperature (°C) and 24 h post-exercise baseline heart rate (HR), HR recovery and heart rate variability (HRV) were measured. For HRV, two time-domain indices were measured: the root mean square of the standard deviation of the NN interval (rMSSD) and the standard deviation of the NN interval (SDNN). Linear regression models were performed to evaluate the associations between exercise training duration and ANS recovery (baseline HR and HRV) and function (HR recovery) at ≥37 °C, ≥38 °C and ≥39 °C core temperature thresholds. On average, the athletes were 21.3 (± 1.4) years old, weighed 103.0 (±20.2) kg and had a body fat percentage of 15.4% (±7.8%, 3.0% to 36.0%). The duration of training sessions was, on average, 161.1 (±40.6) min and they ranged from 90.1 to 339.6 min. Statistically significant associations between training duration and 24 h ANS recovery and function were observed at both the ≥38.0 °C (baseline HR: β = 0.10 ± 0.02, R² = 0.26, p < 0.0000; HR recovery: β = −0.06 ± 0.02, R² = 0.21, p = 0.0002; rMSSD: β = −0.11 ± 0.02, R² = 0.24, p < 0.0000; and SDNN: β = −0.16 ± 0.04, R² = 0.22, p < 0.0000) and ≥39.0 °C thresholds (β = 0.39 ± 0.05, R² = 0.62, p < 0.0000; HR recovery: β = −0.26 ± 0.04, R² = 0.52, p < 0.0000; rMSSD: β = −0.37 ± 0.05, R² = 0.58, p < 0.0000; and SDNN: β = −0.67 ± 0.09, R² = 0.59, p < 0.0000). With increasing core temperatures, increases in slope steepness and strengths of the associations were observed, indicating accelerated ANS deterioration. These findings demonstrate that exercise training under elevated core temperatures (≥38 °C) may negatively influence ANS recovery and function 24 h post exercise and progressively worsen. Full article