Sports

13 pages, 2505 KB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Foot and Legwear Color on Lower-Limb Temperature in Baseball Players Under Heat Stress

by Manato Seguchi, Yoko Iio, Saimi Yamamoto, Tsukasa Yamamoto, Harumi Ejiri, Yuka Aoyama and Morihiro Ito

Sports 2025, 13(10), 369; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13100369 - 21 Oct 2025

Abstract

Background: Elevated global temperatures increase the risk of heat-stroke among athletes exercising in hot conditions. Japanese high school baseball tournaments occur during peak summer, raising concerns regarding heat-related health issues. We examined whether the color of footwear and legwear affects lower-limb temperature, exploring [...] Read more.

Background: Elevated global temperatures increase the risk of heat-stroke among athletes exercising in hot conditions. Japanese high school baseball tournaments occur during peak summer, raising concerns regarding heat-related health issues. We examined whether the color of footwear and legwear affects lower-limb temperature, exploring approaches to prevent heat-related health problems. Methods: Eight mannequin legs were fitted with shoes, socks, and baseball stirrup socks in white or black combinations. Plantar and shin surface temperatures were recorded for 120 min on both dirt and artificial turf at wet-bulb globe temperatures above 30 °C and compared across color combinations. Reflectance spectra of shin legwear were also measured. Results: Plantar and shin surface temperatures increased under all conditions. On the dirt field, mannequins wearing all-black gear (shoe, sock, and baseball stirrup sock) exhibited plantar temperatures exceeding 45 °C and shin temperatures over 50 °C. The highest shin temperature occurred with the white shoe/black baseball stirrup sock combination. Temperature increases were smaller for all-white items compared with all-black items. Reflectance spectra showed that white baseball stirrup socks strongly reflected both visible and infrared light. Conclusions: Footwear and legwear color significantly influence lower-limb temperature increases during baseball games in summer heat, especially when wearing all-black items. White gear may help prevent heat-related health problems and improve performance in baseball and other outdoor sports. Full article

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13 pages, 2066 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Oral Versus Nasal Breathing on Muscular Performance, Muscle Oxygenation, and Post-Exercise Recovery

by Morgan Lévénez, Clément Lévêque, Capucine Lafère, François Guerrero, Costantino Balestra and Pierre Lafère

Sports 2025, 13(10), 368; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13100368 - 20 Oct 2025

Abstract

Nitric oxide (NO) plays a crucial role in muscle oxidative capacity, which predicts muscle strength. This study aimed to investigate whether different breathing techniques (nasal or oral breathing) affect muscle performance during acute exhaustive exercise. In our study, 49 healthy individuals (24♀/25♂; age [...] Read more.

Nitric oxide (NO) plays a crucial role in muscle oxidative capacity, which predicts muscle strength. This study aimed to investigate whether different breathing techniques (nasal or oral breathing) affect muscle performance during acute exhaustive exercise. In our study, 49 healthy individuals (24♀/25♂; age 22.8 ± 3.4 years) performed two Wingate anaerobic tests in a counterbalanced order. Although perceived exertion was significantly higher with oral breathing (Borg Scale: 9.0 ± 1.1 vs. 8.0 ± 1.3, p = 0.04), breathing mode did not impact power output (peak: 749 ± 290 vs. 728 ± 284 W; average: 576 ± 217 vs. 575 ± 216 W, p = 0.2). NIRS data indicated no significant differences in muscle desaturation between the two breathing modes; however, nasal breathing resulted in significantly faster (0.45 ± 0.4 vs. 0.23 ± 0.12%/s, p = 0.02) and greater (75.2 ± 4.0 vs. 73.1 ± 3.6%, p = 0.04) post-exercise muscle recovery. As an indirect marker of NO bioavailability, flow-mediated dilation (FMD) was associated with a significant improvement (Pre: 107.4 ± 3.0% vs. Post: 110.3 ± 3.6%, p < 0.001) via nasal breathing only, with a significant difference between the two breathing modes (p < 0.0001). Therefore, we suggest that the nitrate–nitrite–NO pathway enhances muscle energy and function, which highlights the importance of nasal breathing. Full article

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11 pages, 214 KB

Open AccessArticle

Pitch Selection Ability and Spatial Executive Function Independently Predict Baseball Batting Performance

by Yoshitaka Morishita, Genta Ochi, Daiki Takahashi, Kodai Kato, Wataru Uchiyama and Yasuyuki Nishihara

Sports 2025, 13(10), 367; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13100367 - 17 Oct 2025

Abstract

Pitch selection—the ability to discriminate balls from strikes—is fundamental to baseball batting success. This study examined whether this ability relates to executive function and batting performance in collegiate players. Furthermore, this ability may be supported by brain functions such as executive functions, and [...] Read more.

Pitch selection—the ability to discriminate balls from strikes—is fundamental to baseball batting success. This study examined whether this ability relates to executive function and batting performance in collegiate players. Furthermore, this ability may be supported by brain functions such as executive functions, and the importance of Pitch Selection has long been considered. However, this ability has not yet been quantified, and there are no training methods for pitch selection. 14 male collegiate baseball players (age: 20.6 ± 1.0 years, first division university league) completed a virtual reality pitch selection task and spatial Stroop task. Methods included virtual reality pitch selection assessment, spatial Stroop task, and official batting statistics from league play. The results showed a significant positive relationship between the pitch selection task and hitting performance, such as the on-base percentage (r = 0.57, p < 0.05) and walk percentage (r = 0.82, p < 0.05). Furthermore, a significant negative correlation was found between the vertical Stroop task reaction time and the percentage of correct strikes among the pitch selection ability tasks (r = −0.67, p < 0.05). Our mediation analysis revealed that both pitch selection ability and executive function independently contribute to batting performance metrics, particularly the walk percentage, rather than executive function influencing performance by enhancing pitch selection ability. These results suggest that pitch selection ability is related to the hitting performance of baseball players and that executive function may play an important role in the performance of pitch selection. Full article

16 pages, 328 KB

Open AccessArticle

Coping Strategies Before Competition: The Role of Stress, Cognitive Appraisal, and Emotions

by José Miguel Nogueira, Clara Simães, Catarina Morais, Paul Mansell and A. Rui Gomes

Sports 2025, 13(10), 366; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13100366 - 16 Oct 2025

Abstract

Sports, and especially competitions, can be a stressful experience for athletes, who often struggle to find and apply strategies to cope with stress. Thus, this study analyzes how different coping strategies anticipated to be employed in an important competition are explained by psychological [...] Read more.

Sports, and especially competitions, can be a stressful experience for athletes, who often struggle to find and apply strategies to cope with stress. Thus, this study analyzes how different coping strategies anticipated to be employed in an important competition are explained by psychological (i.e., cognitive appraisal and emotions) and person and sports-related factors (i.e., gender, type of sport). Specifically, athletes were asked to complete a protocol 24–48 h prior to an important competition to assess their adaptation to stress related to high performance. The study included 383 athletes (60% male, M_age = 22.9 ± 5.3 years), from individual (swimming and running, n = 157; 41%) and team sports (handball, volleyball, n = 226; 59%) competing in major national leagues. Hierarchical linear regression analyses (enter method) were performed to examine the extent to which coping strategies and coping efficacy were explained by psychological, personal and sport-related variables. Results indicated (a) higher control perception and excitement were related with higher intention to use active coping; (b) being a female athlete, practicing individual sports, and excitement (higher intensity and facilitative value) were associated with a higher intention to use emotional support; (c) being a female athlete, lower coping perception, higher anger intensity, and higher facilitative value of happiness were associated with a higher anticipated use of humor; and (d) being a male athlete, higher anxiety, anger, and happiness intensity, and lower facilitative value of dejection and excitement were associated with higher anticipated use of denial. In sum, the explanation of each coping strategy is distinct and should be analyzed separately. Full article

19 pages, 2664 KB

Open AccessReview

Global Research Trends in Sports Nutrition and Football over the Last 20 Years (2004–2024)

by David Michel de Oliveira, Ana Karolina Assis Carvalho Silva, Anderson Geremias Macedo, Mayara Bocchi Fernandes and Eduardo Vignoto Fernandes

Sports 2025, 13(10), 365; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13100365 - 16 Oct 2025

Abstract

Background: We aimed to map the scientific production on sports nutrition applied to soccer. Methods: A scientometric analysis was performed using articles published between 2004 and 2024, retrieved from Web of Science, PubMed, and Scopus. The search yielded 2636 documents, and 526 original [...] Read more.

Background: We aimed to map the scientific production on sports nutrition applied to soccer. Methods: A scientometric analysis was performed using articles published between 2004 and 2024, retrieved from Web of Science, PubMed, and Scopus. The search yielded 2636 documents, and 526 original articles were included after removing reviews, meta-analyses, duplicates, and studies outside the scope. Data were analyzed using Bibliometrix version 5.0.1; Massimo Aria & Corrado Cuccurullo; Naples; Italy. and VOSviewer version 1.6.20; Centre for Science and Technology Studies (CWTS), Leiden University; Leiden; The Netherlands software. Results: There was a 1.450% increase in publications over the period, with a peak in 2024. Nutrients was the leading publication source, while Morton J. and Maughan R. were the most productive authors. Liverpool John Moores University stood out as a collaboration hub. The United Kingdom 371 took the lead in both publication volume and citations. Early research trends focused on hydration and dietary optimization, whereas recent studies emphasized low energy availability, polyphenols, anthropometry, and recovery strategies. The conceptual structure focused on terms such as sports, nutrition, energy intake, food intake, performance, soccer, and training load. Peripheral terms included fluid balance and sweat rate. The co-occurrence analysis revealed underexplored topics such as oxidative stress, lipid peroxidation, beta-alanine supplementation, and antioxidant markers. Conclusions: Advancing these research areas is essential to consolidating nutritional strategies with direct effects on performance and health in soccer players. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Research in Applied Sports Nutrition)

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18 pages, 1892 KB

Open AccessArticle

Neuromuscular Responses to Unilateral and Bilateral Execution of Eccentric Exercises: A Multidimensional sEMG Study

by Yanan You, Dai Sugimoto and Norikazu Hirose

Sports 2025, 13(10), 364; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13100364 - 15 Oct 2025

Abstract

Hamstring injuries are frequent in sports, often linked to eccentric overloading during sprinting. While eccentric strengthening, like Nordic curls and hip extensions, is common, the impact of exercise symmetry (unilateral vs. bilateral) on neuromuscular control remains unclear. This study aimed to investigate regional/task-specific [...] Read more.

Hamstring injuries are frequent in sports, often linked to eccentric overloading during sprinting. While eccentric strengthening, like Nordic curls and hip extensions, is common, the impact of exercise symmetry (unilateral vs. bilateral) on neuromuscular control remains unclear. This study aimed to investigate regional/task-specific neuromuscular strategies during unilateral and bilateral eccentric loading of the same exercises. Twenty-five healthy and physically active young men (age: 24.52 ± 3.82 years; height: 175.53 ± 5.44 cm; weight: 72.06 ± 7.44 kg) were recruited based on physical activity screening, with the exclusion criteria including recent lower limb injuries. Participants performed unilateral and bilateral curls and extensions with surface electromyography on hamstrings, gluteus maximus, and trunk stabilisers. Parameters like root mean square and median frequency were extracted and statistically compared. Unilateral execution generally elicited higher muscle activation, particularly in middle hamstring regions (30.65% to 38.38% in RMS, r = −0.84 to −0.77, p_FDR < 0.001). Frequency differences revealed region-specific neuromuscular strategies. Intra-hamstring comparisons revealed significantly higher median frequencies in the BF50 and ST30 regions at their respective anatomical locations (dz = −1.90 to 1.34, all p_FDR < 0.001). These findings suggest that exercise symmetry and anatomical specialisation jointly shape neuromuscular control, with implications for designing eccentric training to reduce injury risk. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuromuscular Performance: Insights for Athletes and Beyond)

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22 pages, 315 KB

Open AccessArticle

Associations Between Psychological Coping Skills and Player Behaviors During Transition Moments in Male Youth Football

by Francisco Pires, Maria Inês Vigário, Sandra S. Ferreira and António Vicente

Sports 2025, 13(10), 363; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13100363 - 13 Oct 2025

Abstract

Sport performance results from the interaction of tactical, technical, physiological and psychological factors, but psychological aspects are often minimized or analyzed in a decontextualized manner. This exploratory pilot study aimed to contribute to the development of a diagnostic framework that links individual behaviors [...] Read more.

Sport performance results from the interaction of tactical, technical, physiological and psychological factors, but psychological aspects are often minimized or analyzed in a decontextualized manner. This exploratory pilot study aimed to contribute to the development of a diagnostic framework that links individual behaviors during football attack–defense transition moments (ADT) with psychological attributes. Twenty male U14 players were assessed across five official matches regarding their ADT performance indicators. The Athletic Coping Skills Inventory (ACSI-28) and the Resilience Scale (RS) were applied during the competition. Statistical analyses included correlation tests and Bayesian analysis. Players showed a significant tendency to sustain ball recovery behaviors after possession loss (p = 0.004). Psychological resilience and athletic coping skills varied substantially between individuals without positional differences, as well as RS scores were significantly below the high-resilience threshold (147; p = 0.013). A moderate positive correlation emerged between RS Factor 1 and the ACSI-28 subscale “Coping with Adversity” (r = 0.574, p = 0.008). Posterior distributions provide exploratory signals suggesting possible positive associations for two psychological constructs considering ADT individual behaviors: “Concentration” in relation to the maintenance of recovery actions (Mode = 0.439; 95% CI [0.030, 0.721]) and “Goal Setting” in relation to the rapid initiation of recovery actions (Mode = 0.465; 95% CI [0.059, 0.734]). Nevertheless, Bayes Factors favored the null model overall, indicating that these signals are weak and require replication. By contrast, most psychological constructs, including resilience, showed no reliable evidence of correlation with recovery-related actions. The findings highlight the need to further research the integration of psychological assessment into football performance diagnostics, while also indicating that psychological factors alone are insufficient to fully explain youth players’ individual ADT behaviors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Interdisciplinary Approaches to Sports in the 21st Century)

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Graphical abstract

13 pages, 244 KB

Open AccessArticle

Correlation Between Physical Activity and Psychological Problems in Secondary School Students in Spain

by Pablo Pueyo Gutiérrez-Rivas, Demetrio Lozano, Alberto Roso-Moliner, Rafael Albalad-Aiguabella, Oscar Villanueva-Guerrero and Elena Mainer-Pardos

Sports 2025, 13(10), 362; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13100362 - 11 Oct 2025

Abstract

Physical activity (PA) has been identified as a protective factor for adolescent mental health. This study analysed the association between PA and levels of anxiety, depression, and stress among adolescents, considering gender, educational stage, and type of sport. A cross-sectional design was conducted [...] Read more.

Physical activity (PA) has been identified as a protective factor for adolescent mental health. This study analysed the association between PA and levels of anxiety, depression, and stress among adolescents, considering gender, educational stage, and type of sport. A cross-sectional design was conducted with 106 Spanish secondary school students aged 12–16 years. Data were collected through a self-reported questionnaire on PA participation and the validated DASS-21 scale. Descriptive statistics, chi-square (χ²) tests, and adjusted residual analyses were performed. The results showed a significant negative association between PA and anxiety (χ² = 303.34, p < 0.01), stress (χ² = 310.64, p < 0.01), and depression (χ² = 324.32, p < 0.01). Non-athletes presented higher levels of psychological problems compared with active peers, while girls and older students showed greater vulnerability. Adolescents involved in team sports exhibited lower anxiety and stress than those participating in individual sports. In conclusion, higher participation in physical activity, particularly team-based disciplines, is associated with better mental health in adolescents. These findings reinforce the importance of integrating regular physical activity into school contexts to support psychological well-being during adolescence. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enhancing Health Through Physical Activity and Sports Science: Innovations in Applied Research)

20 pages, 591 KB

Open AccessArticle

Feasibility and Preliminary Effects of Community-Based High-Intensity Functional Training for Adults with Mobility Disabilities and Overweight/Obesity: A Pilot Study

by Lyndsie M. Koon, Joseph E. Donnelly, Joseph R. Sherman, Anna M. Rice, Julianne G. Clina, John Thyfault, Reed Handlery, Kaci Handlery and Derek A. Crawford

Sports 2025, 13(10), 361; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13100361 - 11 Oct 2025

Abstract

Background: Preliminary evidence supports high-intensity functional training (HIFT) for improving various health outcomes in non-disabled adults with overweight/obesity. It remains unknown whether HIFT produces similar benefits in individuals who are overweight/obese and also have a mobility disability (e.g., spinal cord injury, multiple sclerosis)—a [...] Read more.

Background: Preliminary evidence supports high-intensity functional training (HIFT) for improving various health outcomes in non-disabled adults with overweight/obesity. It remains unknown whether HIFT produces similar benefits in individuals who are overweight/obese and also have a mobility disability (e.g., spinal cord injury, multiple sclerosis)—a population disproportionately affected by obesity-related health conditions and systemic barriers to exercise. This pilot study aimed to evaluate the feasibility and preliminary effects of a 24-week HIFT intervention, delivered at community sites by certified trainers, for adults with mobility disabilities (MDs) who were overweight/obese. Methods: Twenty adults with MD and overweight/obesity (self-reported BMI 25–46 kg/m²) enrolled in a 24-week HIFT intervention (3 days/wk, 60 min sessions) delivered at four community-based facilities by certified trainers. Feasibility indicators included recruitment, retention, and attendance; adverse events were tracked. Effect sizes (Cohen’s d) were calculated for changes in obesity-related measures, physical function, work capacity, and psychological measures from baseline to post-intervention. Results: Feasibility targets were met, with a recruitment rate of 72.2%, 76.9% retention, and 80.7% attendance. Thirteen adverse events occurred. Effects on obesity-related measures ranged from negligible to moderate, with stable weight/BMI, reduced waist circumference (45% ≥ 3 cm decrease), decreased body fat, and increased lean mass. Functional outcome effects ranged from small to large and included grip strength, balance, and walking speed. Large improvements were observed for the endurance, speed, work capacity, and self-reported physical function. Conclusions: A community-based HIFT program is feasible and may improve health outcomes in adults with MD and overweight/obesity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Researching Physical Activity and Participation in Adapted Sports for People with Disabilities)

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12 pages, 811 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Low-Load and Low-Volume Squat Training Combined with Plyometrics During a Full Season on Physical Performance in Young Soccer Players

by Felipe Franco-Márquez, Carmen Serrano-Cañadillas, Juan Manuel Yáñez-García, Juan José González-Badillo and David Rodríguez-Rosell

Sports 2025, 13(10), 360; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13100360 - 11 Oct 2025

Abstract

The aim of this study was to analyze the effects of a 24-week low-load, low-volume resistance training (RT) program combined with plyometric exercises on the physical performance of U-15 male soccer players. Thirty-two young soccer players were divided into a strength training group [...] Read more.

The aim of this study was to analyze the effects of a 24-week low-load, low-volume resistance training (RT) program combined with plyometric exercises on the physical performance of U-15 male soccer players. Thirty-two young soccer players were divided into a strength training group (STG) and a control group (CG). The STG added two RT sessions per week—using moderate loads (45–60% 1RM) and a low number of repetitions per set—combined with plyometrics to their regular soccer training, while the CG continued with only the field soccer training. Performance assessments (a running sprint test, a countermovement jump, and a progressive loading test in a full squat exercise) were conducted before and after each of three 8-week periods. Significant ‘time × group’ interaction in favor of STG was observed for T20 (p < 0.05), CMJ (p < 0.001), and all variables (p < 0.001) assessed during the full squat exercise. Significant changes between groups were observed in T10 (Post 1 and Post 3, p < 0.05), CMJ (Post 1, Post 2, and Post 3, p < 0.05–0.001), and all strength variables (Post 1, Post 2, and Post 3, p < 0.05–0.001). The findings of this study suggest that a training program based on weightlifting with light loads for a few repetitions per set combined with jumps and sprint exercises, in addition to regular soccer training, induces greater and earlier improvements in strength and sport-related actions (jumping and sprinting), compared with only field soccer training. Coaches and strength-conditioning coaches should consider using RT with low loads and low volume and performing each repetition as fast as possible as an effective stimulus to improve physical performance in key match-determining actions efficiently. Full article

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17 pages, 1861 KB

Open AccessCase Report

Porcine Collagen Injection Therapy Affects Proximal Hamstring Tendinopathy in Athletes by Reducing Time to Return to Sport

by Matteo Baldassarri, Sarino Ricciardello, Diego Ghinelli, Luca Perazzo and Roberto Buda

Sports 2025, 13(10), 359; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13100359 - 10 Oct 2025

Abstract

Background: Proximal hamstring tendinopathy (PHT) is a challenging overuse injury, particularly in athletes, characterized by deep buttock pain localized to the ischial tuberosity and often exacerbated by sports activities. This condition can impact an athlete’s performance, limiting high-level athletic activity. Return to sport [...] Read more.

Background: Proximal hamstring tendinopathy (PHT) is a challenging overuse injury, particularly in athletes, characterized by deep buttock pain localized to the ischial tuberosity and often exacerbated by sports activities. This condition can impact an athlete’s performance, limiting high-level athletic activity. Return to sport (RTS) thus becomes a medical, physical, athletic, and economic necessity. Previous research has explored several conservative and injection-based therapies, but evidence regarding the efficacy of porcine collagen injections remains limited. Therefore, this study aims to compare the results obtained from ultrasound-guided porcine collagen injections versus a structured rehabilitation program in reducing time to return to sport (RTS) and improving Victorian Institute of Sport Assessment—Hamstring (VISA-H) scores with respect to athletes with clinically diagnosed PHT. Conservative approaches for PHT treatments include various options, such as physiotherapy, corticosteroids, plasma-rich-platelet, shockwave therapy, and collagen injection. Collagen demonstrated to be a validated option for tendinopathies treatment due its regenerative and restorative mechanism of action. Methods: Retrospective data were collected from twenty-eight athletes with a clinical diagnosis of PHT, confirmed based on pain provocation tests (Puranen–Orava, bent-knee, and modified bent-knee tests), who were divided into two groups: COL and REHAB. The VISA-H outcomes were recorded for all subjects. The COL group received three ultrasound-guided collagen injections at weekly intervals, plus standard care instructions. The REHAB group completed a progressive exercise program targeting hamstring and lumbopelvic stabilization. The primary outcomes were RTS time (days) and VISA-H scores at baseline and 8 weeks. Adverse effects were recorded. Results: The two groups of treatment were very homogeneous and showed parametric distribution concerning the biological and pathophysiological conditions. No adverse events were reported. The mean times to RTS were 57 and 72 days for COL and REHAB, respectively (p = 0.0083). The VISA-H results revealed better improvement for the COL group than the REHAB treatment (p < 0.0001), and the log-rank test showed a higher odds ratio (HR) for RTS, 5.35 (p = 0.0008), for the COL athletes. Conclusions: Ultrasound-guided porcine collagen injections, combined with standard care, significantly reduced RTS time and improved VISA-H scores compared with rehabilitation alone in athletes with PHT. However, a larger cohort of athletes might be needed to gather more information about this conservative treatment in PHT pathology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Prevention and Rehabilitation of Training Injuries)

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20 pages, 555 KB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Impact of Active Methodologies Involving Physical Activity on Primary School Students: A Systematic Review (2018–2024)

by Rafael Francisco Caracuel-Cáliz, José Luis Ubago-Jiménez, José Manuel Alonso-Vargas and Eduardo Melguizo-Ibáñez

Sports 2025, 13(10), 358; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13100358 - 10 Oct 2025

Abstract

Physical activity integration in elementary education seeks to promote academic performance and the physical, emotional and social health of students. This study aims to examine the effect of active methodologies involving physical activity in primary school students through a detailed review of the [...] Read more.

Physical activity integration in elementary education seeks to promote academic performance and the physical, emotional and social health of students. This study aims to examine the effect of active methodologies involving physical activity in primary school students through a detailed review of the scientific literature. A systematic review was conducted regarding PRISMA guidelines. Searches were performed in Web of Science, Scopus and SPORTDiscus. Studies published between 2018 and April 2024 were selected. The studies focused on the application of active methodologies in primary school populations. The quality of the studies was assessed using the Standard Quality Assessment Criteria for Evaluating Primary Research Articles from Various Fields. After screening and review, 22 articles were included. Most of the studies had longitudinal quasi-experimental or repeated measures designs with a randomized cluster-controlled pilot trial. Cross-sectional studies with descriptive data and mixed methods were also included. Cooperative learning and active breaks were found to improve engagement, classroom behavior, and academic outcomes. In addition, gamification and challenge-based learning also showed positive effects on motivation and engagement, although these were more context-dependent. Shorter or small-scale interventions produced promising but less robust results. Active methodologies improve primary education outcomes, but inconsistent designs limit generalization. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enhancing Health Through Physical Activity and Sports Science: Innovations in Applied Research)

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19 pages, 6437 KB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative Analysis of Passing, Possession, and Goal-Scoring Trends in Euro 2024 and Copa America 2024

by Sattar Taheri-Araghi, Moji Ghadimi and Juan Del Coso

Sports 2025, 13(10), 357; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13100357 - 9 Oct 2025

Abstract

Football, as a team sport, relies on a delicate balance where tactical cohesion and strategic play are as critical as physical prowess. While evidence suggests that European teams often display higher physical intensity, the tactical differences between European and American football are still [...] Read more.

Football, as a team sport, relies on a delicate balance where tactical cohesion and strategic play are as critical as physical prowess. While evidence suggests that European teams often display higher physical intensity, the tactical differences between European and American football are still not well quantified. The aim of this study is to conduct a comparative analysis of passing, possession, and goal-scoring dynamics in Euro 2024 and Copa America 2024. Data from 51 Euro matches and 32 Copa America matches, encompassing all game events with sub-second precision, were obtained from StatsBomb. Analyses were performed in MATLAB, with possession calculated as ‘pure possession,’ excluding inactive periods. Euro 2024 teams demonstrated significantly more total passes per match (

p < 0.05

, Cohen’s

d = 1.43

), higher pass completion rates (

p < 0.05

, Cohen’s

d = 1.30

), and longer possession sequences (

p < 0.05

, Cohen’s

d = 0.24

). They also showed greater possession in the five minutes prior to goals (

p < 0.05

, Cohen’s

d = 0.63

). In contrast, Copa America 2024 teams favored longer passes (

p < 0.05

, Cohen’s

d = 0.15

), reflecting a more direct playing style. Possession disparities between teams in individual matches did not differ significantly (

p = 0.31

, Cohen’s

d = 0.23

), and the distribution of shot distances for goals was also similar across tournaments (

p = 0.86

, Cohen’s

d = 0.02

). In summary, Euro 2024 teams emphasized control through longer possession and greater passing accuracy, while Copa America 2024 teams relied on more dynamic and direct play. These findings underscore how regional footballing philosophies shape match strategies and outcomes, offering insights into the tactical diversity of international football. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Football Science: Integrating Technology, Performance, and Well-Being)

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11 pages, 291 KB

Open AccessArticle

Training Load, Injuries, and Well-Being in Youth Padel Players: A Cross-Sectional Study

by Sofia Ryman Augustsson and Lisa Durdel

Sports 2025, 13(10), 356; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13100356 - 7 Oct 2025

Abstract

The aim of this study was to explore the prevalence of acute and overuse injuries, as well as risk factors, training load and well-being, in male and female youth padel players. Using a cross-sectional design, data were collected from 104 players (aged 15–20) [...] Read more.

The aim of this study was to explore the prevalence of acute and overuse injuries, as well as risk factors, training load and well-being, in male and female youth padel players. Using a cross-sectional design, data were collected from 104 players (aged 15–20) via a web-based form. Players reported injuries, exposure and rating of perceived exertion (RPE), demographics (age and sex), and perceived well-being. Overuse injury severity was scored per body region (0–25), yielding a total possible score of 125. A total of six acute and 49 overuse injuries were recorded, corresponding to a prevalence of 0.53 injuries per player during a one-week recall period. Most injuries affected the knee, while the foot and lower leg had the highest severity scores (median = 44). Female players reported slightly higher stress levels (median 3) than males (median 2: p = 0.01), though no other well-being or training load differences were found. Injured players had significantly higher total wellness scores, indicating worse well-being, compared to non-injured players (median 10 vs. 9, p = 0.03). In conclusion, overuse injuries, particularly to the knee, were most common. Higher perceived stress and poorer wellness scores may be linked to injury risk, underlining the importance of monitoring well-being in youth padel athletes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sports Injury Prevention in Young Athletes)

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18 pages, 2088 KB

Open AccessArticle

Isocaloric High-Intensity Interval and Circuit Training Increases Excess Post-Exercise Oxygen Consumption and Lipid Oxidation Compared to Moderate-Intensity Continuous Training

by Viviane Faleiro, Alexandre V. Gurgel, Thiago T. Guimarães, Tiago C. Figueiredo, Felipe G. Teixeira, Bruno Jotta, Estêvão R. Monteiro, Alexandre G. Meirelles, Carla C. A. Caldas, Maicon T. de Almeida, Raquel C. Castiglione and Silvio R. Marques-Neto

Sports 2025, 13(10), 355; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13100355 - 6 Oct 2025

Abstract

Background: This study compared energy expenditure (EE), substrate metabolism, and excess post-exercise oxygen consumption (EPOC) during moderate-intensity continuous training (MICT), high-intensity interval training (HIIT), and high-intensity circuit training (HICT) isocaloric sessions. Methods: Twelve trained male participants completed isocaloric exercise sessions equalized for EE [...] Read more.

Background: This study compared energy expenditure (EE), substrate metabolism, and excess post-exercise oxygen consumption (EPOC) during moderate-intensity continuous training (MICT), high-intensity interval training (HIIT), and high-intensity circuit training (HICT) isocaloric sessions. Methods: Twelve trained male participants completed isocaloric exercise sessions equalized for EE and average power (AP) across the three modalities. Postexercise EE, carbohydrate and lipid oxidation rates, and EPOC were measured 30 and 60 min after training. Results: Total EE and AP during exercise were similar between the protocols. However, EPOC was significantly higher for HIIT (319.0 ± 88.03 mL) and HICT (329.1 ± 27.79 mL) than for MICT (168.5 ± 21.84 mL), demonstrating greater post-exercise metabolic demand in high-intensity protocols. At 30 min post-exercise, carbohydrate oxidation remained elevated in the HIIT (3.70 ± 1.04 mg/kg/min) and HICT (4.06 ± 1.03 mg/kg/min) groups compared to that in the MICT group (1.42 ± 0.58 mg/kg/min), while lipid oxidation rates were also higher (HIIT: 1.08 ± 0.41; HICT: 1.20 ± 0.24 mg/kg/min; MICT: 0.61 ± 0.20 mg/kg/min). These effects persisted for 60 min, with HIIT and HICT maintaining significantly greater carbohydrate and lipid oxidation than MICT. Correlation analysis indicated a strong relationship between carbohydrate oxidation during exercise and lipid oxidation after 60 min of exercise. Conclusions: High-intensity protocols (HIIT and HICT) promote prolonged postexercise EE, enhance carbohydrate and lipid oxidation, and optimize metabolic recovery, making them effective strategies for maximizing energy utilization beyond the training session. Full article

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12 pages, 341 KB

Open AccessArticle

Proximal Effects of Blood Flow Restriction on Shoulder Muscle Function and Discomfort During Low-Intensity Exercise

by Junyeop Lee, Kibum Jung and Yongwoo Lee

Sports 2025, 13(10), 354; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13100354 - 4 Oct 2025

Abstract

This study aimed to examine the proximal effects of blood flow restriction (BFR) training on shoulder muscle function and subjective discomfort during low-intensity external rotation exercise. Twenty-four healthy adults were randomly assigned to a BFR group or a control group and performed shoulder [...] Read more.

This study aimed to examine the proximal effects of blood flow restriction (BFR) training on shoulder muscle function and subjective discomfort during low-intensity external rotation exercise. Twenty-four healthy adults were randomly assigned to a BFR group or a control group and performed shoulder stabilization exercises with or without BFR. Outcome measures included shoulder external rotation range of motion, maximal isometric strength, muscle endurance, electromyographic activity of the rotator cuff muscles, and perceived discomfort. Both groups demonstrated significant within-group improvements in all outcomes except posterior deltoid and supraspinatus activity (p < 0.05). Between-group comparisons showed significantly greater gains in maximal strength and infraspinatus and teres minor activation in the BFR group than in the control group (p < 0.05), while discomfort and fatigue scores were also higher in the BFR group (p < 0.05). These findings suggest that BFR applied at the proximal upper arm can enhance the strength and activation of key rotator cuff muscles even when cuff placement near the shoulder is limited by anatomy. Proximal BFR may serve as an effective intervention for improving shoulder function when high-intensity exercise is contraindicated, although strategies to minimize discomfort are needed to improve clinical feasibility. Full article

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15 pages, 917 KB

Open AccessArticle

Awareness, Perceived Importance and Implementation of Sports Vision Training

by Clara Martinez-Perez, Henrique Nascimento, Ana Roque and on behalf of the Sports Vision High-Performance Research Group

Sports 2025, 13(10), 353; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13100353 - 4 Oct 2025

Abstract

Background: Sports vision training improves perceptual–motor skills crucial for performance and injury prevention. Despite proven benefits, little is known about its perception and use among coaches in Portugal. Methods: A cross-sectional online survey was completed by active coaches from various sports, gathering sociodemographic [...] Read more.

Background: Sports vision training improves perceptual–motor skills crucial for performance and injury prevention. Despite proven benefits, little is known about its perception and use among coaches in Portugal. Methods: A cross-sectional online survey was completed by active coaches from various sports, gathering sociodemographic data, awareness of visual training, perceived importance of ten visual skills, and implementation in training plans. Statistical analyses included descriptive tests to summarize sample characteristics, t-tests and two-way ANOVA to compare perceived importance of visual skills across sex and sport modalities, Spearman correlations to assess associations with age, and Firth-corrected logistic regression to identify predictors of incorporating visual training into practice plans. Results: Among 155 participants (88.5% men; mean age 36.9 ± 11.8 years), 73.2% reported incorporating visual training, with no association with self-reported knowledge (p = 0.413). Regarding perceived importance, reaction time was rated highest (1.20 ± 0.44), followed by hand–eye/body coordination (1.61 ± 0.71) and anticipation (1.34 ± 0.55). Age negatively correlated with importance given to visual memory, peripheral vision, concentration, depth perception, coordination, and moving-object recognition (p < 0.05). Multivariable analysis showed age (OR = 1.05; p = 0.0206) and volleyball (OR = 2.45; p = 0.031) positively associated with implementation, while higher perceived importance for visual concentration was negatively associated (OR = 0.54; p = 0.0176). Conclusions: Visual training implementation is high but not always linked to formal knowledge. Adoption is influenced by sport and demographics, and the counterintuitive role of visual concentration underscores the need for tailored educational programs to enhance performance and reduce injury risk. Full article

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15 pages, 1917 KB

Open AccessArticle

Test–Retest Reliability of Ankle Mobility, Balance, and Jump Tests in Amateur Trail Running Athletes

by Alberto Dominguez-Muñoz, José Carmelo Adsuar, Santos Villafaina, Juan Luis Leon-Llamas and Francisco Javier Dominguez-Muñoz

Sports 2025, 13(10), 352; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13100352 - 4 Oct 2025

Abstract

This study aimed to test the reliability of seven functional performance tests in amateur trail runners, including ankle mobility, balance, hopping, and countermovement jump (CMJ) tests. The sample consisted of 35 runners who were evaluated in two sessions separated by 7 to 14 [...] Read more.

This study aimed to test the reliability of seven functional performance tests in amateur trail runners, including ankle mobility, balance, hopping, and countermovement jump (CMJ) tests. The sample consisted of 35 runners who were evaluated in two sessions separated by 7 to 14 days, which varied due to participants’ scheduling constraints. Relative reliability was assessed using the Intraclass Correlation Coefficient (ICC, which indicates consistency between repeated measures), the Standard Error of Measurement (SEM, which reflects measurement precision), and the Minimal Detectable Change (MDC, which represents the smallest real change beyond measurement error). The results show high reliability in almost all tests. The Lunge Test obtained an ICC of 0.990 and 0.983 for distance, and 0.941 and 0.958 for angular measurements in both legs. The Hop Tests showed moderate reliability with ICC above 0.7 In contrast, the Y Balance Test demonstrated lower reliability, with ICC values ranging from 0.554 to 0.732. The CMJ test showed good reliability, with an ICC ranging from 0.753 to 0.894, an SEM between 5.79% and 11.3%, and an MDC ranging from 15.54% to 31.44%, making it useful for assessing lower limb explosive strength. Both tests presented comparatively higher error values, which should be considered when interpreting individual changes. These findings support the use of these tests as valid and reliable tools for evaluating ankle dorsiflexion, balance, functional symmetry, and lower limb explosive strength in amateur trail runners, prior to training programs or injury prevention strategies, provided that standardized protocols and validated measuring instruments are used. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fostering Sport for a Healthy Life)

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11 pages, 512 KB

Open AccessArticle

Run-Based Tests Performed on an Indoor and Outdoor Surface Are Comparable in Adolescent Rugby League Players

by Michael A. Carron and Vincent J. Dalbo

Sports 2025, 13(10), 351; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13100351 - 4 Oct 2025

Abstract

At non-professional levels of rugby league, run-based tests are commonly performed on outdoor turfed fields and on indoor multipurpose sport surfaces, and results are monitored to gauge player performance and progression. However, test–retest reliability has not been conducted on indoor surfaces in adolescent [...] Read more.

At non-professional levels of rugby league, run-based tests are commonly performed on outdoor turfed fields and on indoor multipurpose sport surfaces, and results are monitored to gauge player performance and progression. However, test–retest reliability has not been conducted on indoor surfaces in adolescent rugby league players, and no research has examined if results obtained on outdoor and indoor surfaces are comparable for practitioners. Adolescent, male, rugby league players (N = 15; age = 17.1 ± 0.7 years) completed a 20 m linear sprint test (10- and 20 m splits), 505-Agility Test, and Multistage Fitness Test (MSFT) weekly for three consecutive weeks. Absolute (coefficient of variation (CV)) and relative (intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC)) reliability of each run-based test performed on the indoor surface was quantified. Dependent t-tests, Hedges g, and 95% confidence intervals were used to examine if differences in performance occurred between indoor and outdoor surfaces. Effect size magnitudes were determined as Trivial: <0.20, Small: 0.20–0.49, Medium: 0.50–0.79, and Large: ≥0.80. All tests were considered reliable on the indoor surface (CV < 5.0%; ICCs = moderate-good) except for the 505-Agility Test (CV = 4.6–5.1%; ICCs = poor). Non-significant (p > 0.05), trivial differences were revealed between surface types for 10 (g = 0.15, 95% CI = −0.41 to 0.70) and 20 m (g = 0.06, 95% CI = −0.49 to 0.61) sprint tests, the 505-Agility Test (Right: g = −0.53, 95% CI = −1.12 to 0.06; Left: g = −0.40, 95% CI = −0.97 to 0.17), and the MSFT (g = 0.25, 95% CI = −0.31 to 0.81). The 10 and 20 m linear sprint test and MSFT have acceptable test–retest reliability on an indoor multipurpose sport surface, and practitioners may compare results of run-based tests obtained on an outdoor and indoor surface. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sport-Specific Testing and Training Methods in Youth)

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