Sports

12 pages, 559 KB

Open AccessReview

A Scoping Review of Sport National Concussion Guidelines in Squash

by Nina Mangan and Neil Heron

Sports 2025, 13(9), 325; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13090325 - 12 Sep 2025

Squash is a commonly played racquet sport in which players are at risk of concussion injuries. This review aims to identify and assess the squash concussion guidelines in top squash countries. Design: Scoping review. Method: This review follows the framework laid out by [...] Read more.

Squash is a commonly played racquet sport in which players are at risk of concussion injuries. This review aims to identify and assess the squash concussion guidelines in top squash countries. Design: Scoping review. Method: This review follows the framework laid out by Arksey and O’Malley and later advanced by Levac et al. This review adheres to the PRISMA-ScR checklist. Eligibility criteria included countries with either a female or male player in the World Squash Federation Top 50 World Rankings in June 2025. This produced a list of twenty-one countries, and seven concussion guidelines were eligible for review. Results: Twenty-one countries matched the inclusion criteria. Canada is the only country identified with a squash-specific concussion guideline. Seven countries had national concussion guidance, and fourteen countries had no national concussion guidance. Conclusions: There is a lack of squash-specific concussion guidelines. The World Squash Federation and national squash organisations should produce squash-specific concussion guidelines that are in line with the Amsterdam Statement and their own respective country’s national guidelines. The World Squash Federation should specifically reference concussion in their rules and should strongly consider updating their self-inflicted injury time rules to allow for the suspension of play for up to fifteen minutes if there is a suspected head injury. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sport-Related Concussion and Head Impact in Athletes)

13 pages, 3885 KB

Open AccessArticle

Correlation of Body Parameters and Age with Foot Arch Index and Stabilometric Variables in Physically Active Young Males and Females

by Marco Alessandria, Irene Pivetta, Goran Kuvacic, Nicola Luigi Bragazzi, Sonia Angilletta and Andrea De Giorgio

Sports 2025, 13(9), 324; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13090324 - 12 Sep 2025

Abstract

Postural stability is influenced by several anthropometric factors as well as age. The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between body height, body mass, BMI, and arch index with stabilometric parameters in physically active young adults. A total of 169 [...] Read more.

Postural stability is influenced by several anthropometric factors as well as age. The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between body height, body mass, BMI, and arch index with stabilometric parameters in physically active young adults. A total of 169 sport science university students participated in the study. Their arch index and their stabilometric parameters were measured using the P-Walk BTS platform. Spearman’s rank correlations showed a significant positive correlation between body mass and arch index (r = 0.25, p = 0.001), and BMI and arch index (r = 0.30, p < 0.001). Also, negative correlations were observed between body height and CoP speed (r = −0.22, p = 0.004) and CoP distance (r = −0.23, p = 0.003), as well as body weight and CoP speed (r = −0.17, p = 0.028) and CoP distance (r = −0.19, p = 0.015). Age was negatively correlated to postural sway variables (i.e., CoP distance, CoP area, and CoP speed). The findings suggest that, in physically active people, larger anthropometric values may confer stabilizing advantages, potentially due to increased body volume. Also, the significant correlation of age to stability metrics may highlight enhanced proprioceptive integration or adaptive neural mechanisms. The results highlight the importance of individualised proprioceptive training programmes, particularly for athletes of lower body mass or stature. Future research should extend on the results’ potential training and rehabilitative implications. Full article

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13 pages, 968 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Arch Support Pad Stiffness on Lower-Limb Biomechanics During Single-Leg Landing

by Chu-Hao Li, Qiu-Qiong Shi, Kit-Lun Yick, Ming-Yu Hu and Shi-Wei Mo

Sports 2025, 13(9), 323; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13090323 - 11 Sep 2025

Abstract

Arch structure is a crucial interface between the human body and the ground during landing tasks, but the biomechanical effects of arch support stiffness remain insufficiently explored. This study examines the effects of arch supports with different stiffnesses on lower-limb biomechanics during landing. [...] Read more.

Arch structure is a crucial interface between the human body and the ground during landing tasks, but the biomechanical effects of arch support stiffness remain insufficiently explored. This study examines the effects of arch supports with different stiffnesses on lower-limb biomechanics during landing. Twelve male participants (six normal arches, six flat feet) performed a single-leg drop landing from a 45 cm height under four arch support conditions: no arch support pad (NAP), soft-stiffness arch support pad (SAP), medium-stiffness arch support pad (MAP), and high-stiffness arch support pad (HAP). Dominant lower-limb joint angles and moments in the sagittal plane and vertical ground reaction force (vGRF)-related parameters—time to peak vGRF, peak vGRF, and max loading rate—were recorded using a motion capture system and force plate. Data were analyzed using one-way repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA). Arch pad stiffness significantly affected ankle and knee kinematics. The NAP condition exhibited significantly higher ankle plantarflexion at initial contact (p ≤ 0.01), as well as larger range of motion (ROM) of the knee (p = 0.03) and hip (p < 0.01), compared to the use of a SAP or MAP. The use of a HAP resulted in a significantly lower peak ankle dorsiflexion moment and larger peak knee flexion angle than the other conditions (p ≤ 0.04). The peak knee extension moment was the highest when using a NAP, and was significantly higher than that shown with the use of a MAP or HAP (p ≤ 0.02). No significant differences were observed in hip joint moments or vGRF-related parameters across conditions (p ≥ 0.52). These results indicate that hard-stiffness arch support pads modulate lower-limb mechanics during landing, potentially enhancing shock absorption and reducing knee loading. Full article

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15 pages, 785 KB

Open AccessArticle

Knowledge of Targeted Muscles and Proper Form in Strength Training: A Cross-Sectional Survey of 1000 Adults Across Age, Sex, and Instructional Experience

by Yoshiki Kobayashi, Megumi Gonno, Kyosuke Oku, Yuki Mori and Noriyuki Kida

Sports 2025, 13(9), 322; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13090322 - 11 Sep 2025

Abstract

With the growing availability of strength training information through online platforms and social media, there is an increasing need to ensure that individuals possess sufficient knowledge to train safely and effectively. Nonetheless, previous studies on strength training literacy have primarily focused on university [...] Read more.

With the growing availability of strength training information through online platforms and social media, there is an increasing need to ensure that individuals possess sufficient knowledge to train safely and effectively. Nonetheless, previous studies on strength training literacy have primarily focused on university students and have not adequately examined differences in knowledge across age groups or the roles of training experience and instruction. This study aimed to assess the knowledge of (a) targeted muscle groups and (b) proper form and movement among adults aged 20–69 years and to explore how this knowledge varies by age, sex, and experience in training and professional instruction. A total of 1000 adults (100 males and 100 females in each decade from their 20s to 60s) participated in an online survey. The participants were categorized into three groups according to their training and instructional experience. Knowledge was assessed using 10 items pertaining to targeted muscles and 18 items related to exercise form and movement. Three-way analysis of variance was conducted to analyze the associations between age, sex, and experience. Overall, 75.5% of the participants reported strength training experience, whereas 29.3% had received instruction. Knowledge of the targeted muscle groups was significantly higher in participants in their 60s than in those in their 20s (p = 0.014); however, the overall accuracy remained below 60%. No significant effect of instruction on anatomical knowledge was observed. In contrast, both training and instructional experience were positively associated with knowledge of form and movement, although the accuracy remained modest among all groups (50–60%). Sex differences in instructional experience varied by age, with older females reporting higher rates than their male counterparts. In conclusion, knowledge of strength training among adults remains insufficient, particularly regarding anatomical targets. Although instruction enhances the understanding of form and movement, it does not guarantee anatomical literacy. To improve training outcomes and safety, instructional strategies should integrate clear, structured, and pedagogically informed approaches that emphasize movement execution and muscle engagement. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Benefits of Physical Activity and Exercise to Human Health)

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19 pages, 346 KB

Open AccessArticle

by Walter Sapuppo, Davide Giacconi, Antonietta Monda, Antonietta Messina, Daniele Saccenti, Claudia Maria Mineo, Maria Casillo, Salvatore Allocca, Giovanni Michelini, Regina Gregori Grgič, Vincenzo Monda, Jacopo Lamanna, Mattia Ferro, Girolamo Di Maio, Marcellino Monda and Marco La Marra

Sports 2025, 13(9), 321; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13090321 - 11 Sep 2025

Abstract

The use of dietary supplements is widespread among athletes and physically active individuals, yet their impact on health-related quality of life (HRQoL) remains insufficiently understood. This study investigated the associations between supplement use, physical activity patterns, and HRQoL in a heterogeneous sample of [...] Read more.

The use of dietary supplements is widespread among athletes and physically active individuals, yet their impact on health-related quality of life (HRQoL) remains insufficiently understood. This study investigated the associations between supplement use, physical activity patterns, and HRQoL in a heterogeneous sample of 537 adults engaged in sports at amateur, professional, or recreational levels. Participants completed an online survey assessing demographics, supplement use, physical activity habits, and quality of life using the SF-36 questionnaire. Statistical analyses included chi-square tests and independent-samples t-tests to explore relationships between supplement use, body mass index (BMI), motivational variables, and HRQoL outcomes. Results indicated that 46.7% of participants reported consuming at least one supplement or substance, with an average of 1.91 products. The primary motivations included performance enhancement (30.7%) and combined performance and aesthetic goals (12.1%). A significant association emerged between supplement use and the consistency of physical activity over time, as well as the individual’s motivation for engaging in exercise. Participants who maintained stable activity levels and those driven by performance or competitive motives were more likely to use supplements. In contrast, individuals exercising primarily for physical and psychological health were less likely to report supplement use. When comparing HRQoL scores, supplement users showed significantly lower levels of impairment due to emotional issues (RE), social functioning (SF), and bodily pain (BP). Among these variables, only Bodily Pain presented a small effect size, suggesting a meaningful difference between users and non-users. These findings highlight that while supplements are commonly used in athletic contexts, their association with improved quality of life is limited, and may even reflect attempts to manage physical discomfort. Further research is needed to clarify the directionality of these relationships and inform safe and evidence-based consumption. Full article

26 pages, 1048 KB

Open AccessReview

Considering the Effects of Cannabinoids and Exercise on the Brain: A Narrative Review

by Amir Yahya Rajaei, J. Patrick Neary, Elizabeth S. Thompson, Jyotpal Singh and Cameron S. Mang

Sports 2025, 13(9), 320; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13090320 - 11 Sep 2025

Abstract

Recently, there has been rising interest in the use of cannabis and its derivatives as therapeutic tools to support brain health, particularly in athletes. Cannabis-based substances interact with the endogenous cannabinoid (i.e., endocannabinoid) system, which is involved in widespread physiological processes that contribute [...] Read more.

Recently, there has been rising interest in the use of cannabis and its derivatives as therapeutic tools to support brain health, particularly in athletes. Cannabis-based substances interact with the endogenous cannabinoid (i.e., endocannabinoid) system, which is involved in widespread physiological processes that contribute to brain function. In other work, the benefits of exercise for brain health have been prominently noted. Despite large bodies of work on both cannabinoid and exercise influences on brain function, there is an understudied overlap in their physiological effects that may be especially important in athletic populations regularly engaged in high volumes of exercise. This narrative review describes mechanistic overlaps between cannabinoid and exercise effects on brain function. The literature search was broad, emphasizing research published since 2010 and including randomized clinical trials, observational studies, case studies, preclinical work, both human and animal studies, and information presented in related review articles. The focal point of the current review is the potentially overlapping effects of cannabinoids and exercise on brain function via physiological processes underpinning inflammation, vascular function, and neuroplasticity. Mechanisms are described in detail with consideration of common and contrasting influences of cannabinoids and exercise on the brain. Altogether, the compiled information suggests that indirect and direct interactions between these two therapeutic avenues have potential to introduce additive, synergistic, or opposing effects. Considering such interactions will be critical in optimizing therapeutic strategies involving cannabinoids as they are increasingly applied in the sport sciences and beyond. Full article

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11 pages, 601 KB

Open AccessReview

Urinary Incontinence in Young Gymnastics Athletes: A Scoping Review

by Alice Higounenc, Alice Carvalhais, Ágata Vieira and Sofia Lopes

Sports 2025, 13(9), 319; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13090319 - 10 Sep 2025

Abstract

Background/Objectives: Urinary incontinence (UI) is increasingly reported among young nulliparous women, especially those engaged in high-impact sports. This may increase the risk of developing stress urinary incontinence (SUI) later in life. This scoping review aims to synthesise current evidence on UI in gymnasts, [...] Read more.

Background/Objectives: Urinary incontinence (UI) is increasingly reported among young nulliparous women, especially those engaged in high-impact sports. This may increase the risk of developing stress urinary incontinence (SUI) later in life. This scoping review aims to synthesise current evidence on UI in gymnasts, identify the gymnastics modalities with the highest prevalence of UI, and examine the outcomes measures and interventions considered for UI. Methods: A scoping review was conducted using the following databases: PubMed, Cochrane, Science Direct, Scielo, EBSCO, PEDro, and NIH. Studies published in English or Portuguese between January 2012 and May 2023 were included. Review articles, qualitative studies, and conferences abstracts were excluded. Studies were analysed according to the PRISMA-ScR framework. Results: Out of 169 identified studies, 4 were included. SUI emerged as the most prevalent type of UI, particularly in artistic and trampoline modalities. All the studies used the ICIQ-UI-SF to assess UI. Reported outcomes included prevalence of UI and SUI, impact on quality of life and athletic performance, as well as knowledge about UI and pelvic floor. No studies investigated treatments for UI. Conclusions: The prevalence of SUI is high among gymnasts (70%), especially in artistic and trampoline disciplines. Although there is outcome heterogeneity across studies, all used the ICIQ-UI-SF. There is a critical gap regarding interventions for UI in this population. Full article

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14 pages, 808 KB

Open AccessArticle

Breaking Barriers: Understanding the Impact of Intellectual Impairment on Inductive Reasoning in Basketball

by Javier Pinilla-Arbex, Javier Pérez-Tejero and Yves Vanlandewijck

Sports 2025, 13(9), 318; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13090318 - 10 Sep 2025

Abstract

Access to high-performance sports is crucial for the holistic development and well-being of athletes with intellectual impairment (II). However, ensuring fair and equitable participation requires effective eligibility systems. This study investigates how basketball-specific inductive reasoning impacts athletes with II. A total of 92 [...] Read more.

Access to high-performance sports is crucial for the holistic development and well-being of athletes with intellectual impairment (II). However, ensuring fair and equitable participation requires effective eligibility systems. This study investigates how basketball-specific inductive reasoning impacts athletes with II. A total of 92 elite male players with II (average age 26.3 ± 7 years) and 128 control players without II participated. This study used a tailored test to assess the ability to quickly and accurately arrange 12 photo series depicting basketball sequences. Athletes with II were hypothesized to require more time and arrange the image sequences less accurately compared to their peers. The results indicated that athletes with II took significantly more time (41.2 s ± 20.2 s) and arranged the image sequences less accurately than senior players without II (19.2 s ± 5.9 s). A discriminant function analysis classified 84.1% of players accurately, confirming that athletes with II performed at a lower level in basketball-specific activities that require inductive reasoning. These findings contribute to the development of Phase 3 of the classification model for athletes with II, which consists of 4 phases. This helps establish the eligibility system boundaries in basketball for individuals with II, promoting equitable access for athletes to high-performance sports. Full article

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18 pages, 2292 KB

Open AccessSystematic Review

The Effect of Consuming Caffeine Before Late Afternoon/Evening Training or Competition on Sleep: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis

by Adem Kocak, Ekavi Georgousopoulou, Catherine R. Knight-Agarwal, Raymond Matthews and Michelle Minehan

Sports 2025, 13(9), 317; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13090317 - 10 Sep 2025

Abstract

Many athletes consume caffeine before late afternoon/evening training sessions or competition, yet the impact on subsequent sleep remains unclear. This systematic review with meta-analysis examined the effects of late afternoon/evening caffeine consumption on sleep in athletes. Ten studies (n = 128 athletes) [...] Read more.

Many athletes consume caffeine before late afternoon/evening training sessions or competition, yet the impact on subsequent sleep remains unclear. This systematic review with meta-analysis examined the effects of late afternoon/evening caffeine consumption on sleep in athletes. Ten studies (n = 128 athletes) involving randomized controlled trials and quasi-experimental designs were included if caffeine was consumed prior to late afternoon/evening training and subsequent sleep was measured. Meta-analysis followed PRISMA guidelines with risk of bias assessed using RoB-2 and ROBINS-I tools. Meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials revealed a small reduction in sleep efficiency with evening caffeine consumption: mean difference −4.87%, 95% CI −7.45 to −2.29, p = 0.04, though this effect was not robust in leave-one-out sensitivity analyses. Total sleep time showed a non-significant trend toward reduction: mean difference −32.47 min, 95% CI −69.93 to 4.99, p = 0.08, I² = 0%. Athletes consistently reported substantial subjective sleep impairment following evening caffeine intake (3–6 mg/kg BM), creating a pronounced objective–subjective disconnect. The most notable finding is that athletes consistently perceive substantial sleep disruption despite inconsistent objective changes, highlighting the importance of subjective sleep experience in athletic populations. These findings should be interpreted cautiously given the small number of studies and predominance of male participants, limiting generalisability. Full article

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15 pages, 417 KB

Open AccessArticle

Physiological Predictors of Peak Velocity in the VAM-EVAL Incremental Test and the Role of Kinematic Variables in Running Economy in Triathletes

by Jordi Montraveta, Ignacio Fernández-Jarillo, Xavier Iglesias, Andri Feldmann and Diego Chaverri

Sports 2025, 13(9), 316; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13090316 - 10 Sep 2025

Abstract

This study examined the influence of physiological parameters on peak velocity (Vpeak) and of kinematic variables on running economy (RE) during an outdoor incremental VAM-EVAL test completed by eleven national-level triathletes. Maximal oxygen uptake (VO₂max), ventilatory thresholds, RE, and minimum muscle [...] Read more.

This study examined the influence of physiological parameters on peak velocity (Vpeak) and of kinematic variables on running economy (RE) during an outdoor incremental VAM-EVAL test completed by eleven national-level triathletes. Maximal oxygen uptake (VO₂max), ventilatory thresholds, RE, and minimum muscle oxygen saturation (SmO₂min) were obtained with a portable gas analyzer and near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS), while cadence, stride length, vertical oscillation, and contact time were recorded with a foot-mounted inertial sensor. Multiple linear regression showed that VO₂max and SmO₂min together accounted for 86% of the variance in Vpeak (VO₂max: r = 0.76; SmO₂min: r = −0.68), whereas RE at 16 km·h⁻¹ displayed only a moderate association (r = 0.54). Links between RE and kinematic metrics were negligible to weak (r ≤ 0.38). These findings confirm VO₂max as the primary determinant of Vpeak and suggest that SmO₂min can be used as a complementary, non-invasive marker of endurance capacity in triathletes, measurable in the field with portable NIRS. Additionally, inter-individual differences in cadence, stride length, vertical oscillation, and contact time suggest that kinematic adjustments are not universally effective but rather highly individualized, with their impact on RE likely depending on each athlete’s specific characteristics. Full article

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12 pages, 302 KB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Impact of Exercise Therapy in ERAS Prehabilitation for Major Surgery: A Systematic Review

by Anna Antonia Valenzano, Paride Vasco, Gabriella D’Orsi, Tommaso Cassano, Raffaella Marzovillo, Antonio Di Stasi and Giuseppe Cibelli

Sports 2025, 13(9), 315; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13090315 - 10 Sep 2025

Abstract

(1) This systematic review evaluates the role of structured exercise within the Enhanced Recovery After Surgery (ERAS) protocol, a multidisciplinary approach designed to reduce surgical stress and enhance recovery. Prehabilitation, primarily through controlled physical activity, is a fundamental component of ERAS, preparing patients, [...] Read more.

(1) This systematic review evaluates the role of structured exercise within the Enhanced Recovery After Surgery (ERAS) protocol, a multidisciplinary approach designed to reduce surgical stress and enhance recovery. Prehabilitation, primarily through controlled physical activity, is a fundamental component of ERAS, preparing patients, both physically and mentally, for major surgery. (2) A systematic search following PRISMA guidelines was conducted using PubMed, ScienceDirect, Cochrane Library, Web of Science and Wiley databases to identify relevant studies published up to January 2025. Inclusion criteria encompassed randomized controlled trials, cohort studies, and meta-analyses reporting postoperative complications, length of hospital stay (LOS), and overall recovery. (3) A total of 64 studies met the inclusion criteria. The findings consistently demonstrate that structured exercise interventions—such as aerobic activities, resistance training, and flexibility routines—were associated with postoperative complications, shorten hospital stays, and enhance functional recovery. These interventions improve cardiorespiratory fitness, muscle strength, and psychological well-being. (4) Despite potential limitations in the systematic search, as heterogeneity of protocols, publication bias, language restrictions, the evidence supports the integration of structured exercise as a cornerstone of ERAS prehabilitation. Future research should focus on standardizing exercise protocols and exploring personalized strategies to optimize surgical outcomes across diverse patient populations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enhancing Health Through Physical Activity and Sports Science: Innovations in Applied Research)

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15 pages, 2249 KB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Psychosocial Intervention on Performance Determinants in Competitive Swimmers: Roles of Coach, Family, Environment, and Athlete Characteristics

by Alejandro López-Hernández, Juan Ángel Simón-Piqueras, David Zamorano-García, David B. Pyne and José María González Ravé

Sports 2025, 13(9), 314; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13090314 - 9 Sep 2025

Abstract

(1) Background: This study analyzed the effects of intervention programs conducted between 2021 and 2025 as part of the “Aula UCLM-FNCLM” initiative—a partnership between a regional swimming federation and the university—on psychosocial factors in trained swimmers. This program presents interventions for swimmers, their [...] Read more.

(1) Background: This study analyzed the effects of intervention programs conducted between 2021 and 2025 as part of the “Aula UCLM-FNCLM” initiative—a partnership between a regional swimming federation and the university—on psychosocial factors in trained swimmers. This program presents interventions for swimmers, their coaches, their families, and their sports environment. (2) Methods: The effects of a 4-year intervention program on the Castilla-La Mancha swimming team, classified as Tier 3 (Tier 3: Highly Trained/National Level), according to the McKay classification framework (2021 team with 55 swimmers, 25 men, and 30 women; 17.3 ± 5.3 years), and the same sample in 2025 (42 swimmers, 19 men, 23 women—17 ± 2.8 years—and 11 dropouts). A self-perception questionnaire on performance in sport (CAED) was used. (3) Results: The results showed higher ratings (p < 0.001, η² = 0.30) from the swimmers of the 2025 CLM team in the coach factor, and moderate changes in the roles played by family (p < 0.05, η² = 0.12) and environment (p < 0.05, η² = 0.11). The only factor that did not improve was personal characteristics. (4) Conclusions: The UCLM-FNCLM program has contributed to improving the role of factors related to performance in sport (coach, family, and sports environment) in a cohort of regional-based swimmers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Physical Education, Exercise, and Sports Interventions on Children and Adolescent Cognition and Academic Achievement)

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13 pages, 422 KB

Open AccessArticle

Ischemic Preconditioning Attenuates the Decline in Repeated Anaerobic Performance Under Simulated Altitude: A Randomized Crossover Study

by Miłosz Drozd, Jakub Chycki, Adam Maszczyk, Hiago L. R. Souza, Adam Zajac and Moacir Marocolo

Sports 2025, 13(9), 313; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13090313 - 8 Sep 2025

Abstract

Background: This study examined the effects of repeated ischemic preconditioning (IPC) combined with normobaric hypoxia on anaerobic performance and physiological stress markers. Methods: Fourteen physically active males (22.3 ± 3.1 years) completed three randomized, single-blind crossover sessions under the following conditions: (1) normoxia [...] Read more.

Background: This study examined the effects of repeated ischemic preconditioning (IPC) combined with normobaric hypoxia on anaerobic performance and physiological stress markers. Methods: Fourteen physically active males (22.3 ± 3.1 years) completed three randomized, single-blind crossover sessions under the following conditions: (1) normoxia (NOR), (2) normobaric hypoxia (HYP; FiO₂ = 14.7%), and (3) hypoxia with IPC (IPC-HYP). Each session included three 30 s cycling Wingate tests separated by four minutes of passive recovery. Blood samples were collected pre-exercise, immediately post-exercise, and 15 min post-exercise to assess lactate, pH, bicarbonate (HCO₃⁻), and creatine kinase (CK) activity. Results: Peak power output was highest under NOR during Wingate II and III. IPC-HYP attenuated the decline in peak power compared to that under HYP (e.g., Wingate II: 15.56 vs. 12.52 W/kg). IPC-HYP induced greater lactate accumulation (peak: 15.45 mmol/L, p < 0.01), more pronounced acidosis (pH: 7.18 post-exercise), and lower bicarbonate (9.9 mmol/L, p < 0.01). CK activity, measured immediately and then 1 h and 24 h post-exercise, was highest under IPC-HYP at 24 h (568.5 U/L). Conclusions: IPC-HYP mitigates the decline in peak anaerobic power observed under hypoxia, despite eliciting greater metabolic and muscular stress. These findings suggest that IPC may enhance physiological adaptation to hypoxic training, potentially improving anaerobic performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enhancing Health Through Physical Activity and Sports Science: Innovations in Applied Research)

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15 pages, 458 KB

Open AccessArticle

Match vs. Training Physical Requirements and Their Association with Field-Based Physical Tests in International CP Football

by Juan Francisco Maggiolo, Alejandro Caña-Pino, Manuel Moya-Ramón and Iván Peña-González

Sports 2025, 13(9), 312; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13090312 - 8 Sep 2025

Abstract

Objetives: This study aimed to (1) describe and compare the external physical requirements of international cerebral palsy (CP) football players during training sessions and official matches at the 2024 IFCPF World Cup, and (2) analyze the relationships between standardized field-based physical performance tests [...] Read more.

Objetives: This study aimed to (1) describe and compare the external physical requirements of international cerebral palsy (CP) football players during training sessions and official matches at the 2024 IFCPF World Cup, and (2) analyze the relationships between standardized field-based physical performance tests and the physical requirements recorded in both contexts. Methods: Twelve international outfield players from the Spanish national CP football team were monitored throughout the tournament. Physical performance was evaluated two weeks prior using 5-m and 30-m sprints, a Modified Agility Test (MAT), a dribbling test, and the 30–15 Intermittent Fitness Test (vIFT). Match and training physical requirements were assessed using inertial devices, including total and relative distances, velocity metrics, and acceleration/deceleration outputs. Results: Matches imposed significantly greater demands than training sessions in terms of peak velocity, total distance per minute, and distance at moderate (>12–18 km/h) and high (>18 km/h) intensities (t = 2.79 to 8.06; p = 0.01; ES(d) = 0.50 to 1.45). Training sessions exhibited greater variability in load while match requirements were consistent across games. Performance in the MAT and dribbling tests correlated with several physical indicators in both training and competition. In contrast, vIFT and sprint tests showed limited associations, especially with match variables. Conclusions: Match play elicits higher and more stable physical requirements than training. The MAT and dribbling tests appear to be ecologically valid tools for assessing functional readiness in CP football. These findings support the integration of specific physical tests and tailored training designs to better replicate the competitive requirements of international CP football. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Football Science: Integrating Technology, Performance, and Well-Being)

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16 pages, 1790 KB

Open AccessArticle

Associations Between Isokinetic Torque and External Load Metrics During Youth Soccer Matches

by Yiannis Michailidis

Sports 2025, 13(9), 311; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13090311 - 8 Sep 2025

Abstract

Physical fitness, especially strength, is key for football performance and injury prevention, but its role in match running remains unclear. This study examined correlations between knee flexor and extensor isokinetic torque (60°/s, 180°/s, 300°/s) and running performance in 20 U17 players (age 16 [...] Read more.

Physical fitness, especially strength, is key for football performance and injury prevention, but its role in match running remains unclear. This study examined correlations between knee flexor and extensor isokinetic torque (60°/s, 180°/s, 300°/s) and running performance in 20 U17 players (age 16 ± 0.5 years, height 1.78 ± 0.05 m, weight 71 ± 7.1 kg) across 16 matches, with GPS tracking (Apex, STATSports, Newry, Northern Ireland). Results varied by position. Central defenders showed a negative correlation between non-dominant knee flexor torque at 300°/s and high-speed running distance (r = −0.975, p = 0.025). Side defenders displayed positive correlations between dominant knee flexor torque at 300°/s and both total distance and moderate running (r = 0.885–0.976, p < 0.05), but negative correlations with maximum speed (r < −0.89, p < 0.05). Central midfielders had several negative associations between dominant knee flexor torque at 300°/s and accelerations or decelerations (r < −0.88, p < 0.05). Side midfielders and forwards showed positive correlations between torque at higher speeds (180°/s, 300°/s) and sprint distance (r ≥ 0.85, p < 0.05). Overall, associations differed by position, velocity, and performance variable, reflecting tactical demands and the limits of single-joint testing. However, in SMFs, high positive correlations were observed, highlighting the importance of strength and its necessity in the training process. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cutting-Edge Research on Physical Fitness Profile in Soccer Players)

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13 pages, 1953 KB

Open AccessArticle

Associations of Scoring Accuracy with Postural Stability and Strength Measures in Archers on a Standard Archery Site

by Chun-Hao Fan, Chien-Nan Liao and Wei-Hsiu Hsu

Sports 2025, 13(9), 310; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13090310 - 8 Sep 2025

Abstract

Archery performance is substantially influenced by postural stability. Although archery is commonly practiced outdoors, most studies have focused on short-distance indoor environments. Accordingly, this study examined the correlation between postural stability and shooting accuracy in competitive recurve and compound archers on a standard [...] Read more.

Archery performance is substantially influenced by postural stability. Although archery is commonly practiced outdoors, most studies have focused on short-distance indoor environments. Accordingly, this study examined the correlation between postural stability and shooting accuracy in competitive recurve and compound archers on a standard outdoor field (70 m for recurve and 50 m for compound). This study included 37 archers. Each archer’s performance was recorded during a simulated competition. Measurements included muscle strength, body stability, and center of pressure. Postural stability data were analyzed at 0.5 s before and 0.1 s after arrow release. The results indicated that compared with compound archers, recurve archers had stronger upper-limb muscles and exhibited lower pre-release total center of pressure (51.9 mm; p = 0.022) and medial/lateral sway (1.1 mm; p = 0.043). The compound archers exhibited lower post-release anterior/posterior sway (3.2 mm; p = 0.001) and lower angular velocities in most body segments, except for the lower back. The recurve archers relied more on post-release stability, whereas the compound archers relied more on pre-release control. Linear regression analysis identified different predictors of scoring accuracy for each bow type. Our findings highlight the need for discipline-specific training strategies, such as enhancing bow-side stability for recurve archers and drawing-side control for compound archers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomechanics and Sports Performances (2nd Edition))

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64 pages, 992 KB

Open AccessReview

Developing the Physical Fitness of Children: A Systematic Scoping Review of Pedagogy in Research

by Mark Helme, Ian Cowburn and Kevin Till

Sports 2025, 13(9), 309; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13090309 - 8 Sep 2025

Abstract

Despite a robust body of evidence supporting both the need for and the effectiveness of physical fitness interventions in children aged 5–11, global fitness levels in this age group continue to decline. This systematic scoping review interrogates a critical, often overlooked dimension of [...] Read more.

Despite a robust body of evidence supporting both the need for and the effectiveness of physical fitness interventions in children aged 5–11, global fitness levels in this age group continue to decline. This systematic scoping review interrogates a critical, often overlooked dimension of this paradox: the pedagogy of fitness-intervention design and delivery. By analysing 106 primary research studies, the review exposes a consistent pattern. Interventions are predominantly highly structured (89%), rarely foster a mastery-oriented motivational climate (only 11%), and fail to report practitioner behaviours (65%). While most interventions yielded positive fitness outcomes, these gains were achieved without the use of pedagogical strategies known to support engagement, autonomy, and long-term adherence in children. This suggests that current approaches may achieve short-term physiological improvements but are limited in cultivating the motivational and developmental conditions necessary for sustained impact. The findings underscore a pressing need for future research to move beyond the “what” of fitness programming and rigorously address the “how.” Embedding and explicitly reporting pedagogical elements—such as supportive practitioner behaviours, autonomy-supportive structures, and mastery climates—could transform fitness interventions into developmentally appropriate, engaging, and sustainable experiences for children. Without this shift, we risk perpetuating interventions that are effective in the lab but ineffective in life. Full article

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8 pages, 193 KB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Pre-Elite Anterior Cruciate Ligament (ACL) Reconstruction on Draft Outcomes and Reinjury Risk in Elite Australian Football Players: A Retrospective Cohort Study

by James P. Veale, Anik Shawdon, Peter D'Alessandro, Jay R. Ebert and Peter K. Edwards

Sports 2025, 13(9), 308; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13090308 - 5 Sep 2025

Abstract

A history of anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction (ACLR) during the Australian Football (AF) talent pathway may impact draft prospects and increase the risk of a second injury during a professional career. This study investigated whether a history of ACLR before the Australian Football [...] Read more.

A history of anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction (ACLR) during the Australian Football (AF) talent pathway may impact draft prospects and increase the risk of a second injury during a professional career. This study investigated whether a history of ACLR before the Australian Football League (AFL) Draft Combine influenced draft outcomes and second ACL injury rates during an AFL career. A retrospective cohort study was undertaken, whereby AFL talent pathway medical evaluation data from 1071 male players who attended the AFL National Draft Combine between 2011 and 2022 was analyzed. Draft outcomes and secondary ACL injuries were compared between players with and without a pre-draft ACLR using chi-square and Fisher’s exact tests. Twenty-one players (2.0%) had sustained a pre-draft ACLR. All of these players were drafted into the AFL. Players with a prior ACLR were more likely to be drafted in the first two rounds (odds ratio [OR] 2.64; p = 0.039). They were also over eight times more likely to sustain another ACL injury during their careers (28.6% vs. 4.5%; OR 8.54; p < 0.001). This study showed that a pre-draft ACLR did not reduce the likelihood of being drafted but was associated with a higher risk of a secondary ACL injury during an AFL career. These findings are relevant to AFL recruiters, medical staff, and high-performance staff, and support the consideration of education and injury prevention programs for pre-elite players with prior ACLR. Full article

15 pages, 1161 KB

Open AccessArticle

Jump Rope Training Improves Muscular Strength and Cardiovascular Fitness in University Students: A Controlled Educational Intervention

by Sabău Anca Maria, Ordean Mircea Nicolae, Mancini Nicola, Alexandra Szara Szekely, Simon Sorin, Ianc Dorina, Carlos Hervás-Gómez, Popovici Cornelia, Grosu Emilia Florina and Grosu Vlad Teodor

Sports 2025, 13(9), 307; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13090307 - 5 Sep 2025

Abstract

This study aimed to evaluate the effects of jump rope training on cardiovascular capacity, assessed with the Ruffier test, and muscular strength, measured using isometric dynamometry (BioFET Mustec, Almere, The Netherlands), within a university physical education program. A total of 52 undergraduate students [...] Read more.

This study aimed to evaluate the effects of jump rope training on cardiovascular capacity, assessed with the Ruffier test, and muscular strength, measured using isometric dynamometry (BioFET Mustec, Almere, The Netherlands), within a university physical education program. A total of 52 undergraduate students from non-specialist faculties at the University of Oradea were randomly assigned to either an experimental group (EG) or a control group (CG). Over eight weeks, the EG performed a ten-minute jump rope training session once per week in combination with cardiovascular exercises, while the CG participated only in cardiovascular exercises. Statistical analyses revealed a significant group effect on cardiovascular response (Ruffier Index: p = 0.019; Cohen’s d = −0.271) and a substantial increase in right lower limb strength (p = 0.003; d = 1.026) in the EG compared to the CG. Furthermore, improvements were observed in upper limb strength (left arm: p = 0.010; d = 0.922) and left lower limb strength (p = 0.027; d = 0.779). These findings suggest that incorporating jump rope training into university physical education classes may represent an effective and low-cost strategy to enhance both cardiovascular efficiency and muscular strength in young adults. Given its simplicity and affordability, jump rope training appears feasible for implementation in schools and universities, even where resources are limited. Future research should investigate its long-term effects across different populations. Full article

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