The Influence of Former Process Steps on Changes in Hardness, Lattice and Micro Structure of AISI 4140 Due to Manufacturing Processes
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Deep Rolling
2.2. Induction Hardening
2.3. Grinding
2.4. Precision Turning
2.5. Laser Processing
2.6. Electro-Discharge Machining (EDM)
2.7. Electro-Chemical Machining (ECM)
2.8. Analyzing Techniques
2.8.1. Hardness Measurements
2.8.2. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Energy-Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy (EDS) and Electron Backscatter Diffraction (EBSD) Measurements
2.8.3. X-ray Diffraction
3. Results
3.1. Comparison of Hardness Measurement Investigations Results
3.2. Comparison of Results Achieved with Electron Microscopy
3.2.1. Overview of the Outer Layers
3.2.2. Investigations Using Electron Backscatter Diffraction
3.3. Comparison of XRD-Measurement Results
3.3.1. Residual Stresses
3.3.2. Full Width at Half Maximum (FWHM)
4. Discussion
4.1. Grinding
4.2. Precision Turning
4.3. Laser Hardening and Melting
4.4. EDM
4.5. ECM
4.6. Overall Process Comparison, Reliability of Measurement Results, and Influence of the Initial State
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Notation Unit | C % | Cr % | Mn % | P % | S % | Si % | Mo % | Ni % | Al % | Cu % |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
AISI 4140/42CrMo4 | 0.448 | 1.09 | 0.735 | 0.012 | 0.002 | 0.264 | 0.244 | 0.200 | 0.018 | 0.065 |
DIN EN ISO 683-2 | 0.38–0.45 | 0.90–1.20 | 0.60–0.90 | max. 0.025 | max. 0.010 | max. 0.40 | 0.15–1.30 | – | – | – |
Notation | Initial Material Condition | |
---|---|---|
FP | QT | |
yield strength (YS) | 380 MPa (YSFP) | 1420 MPa (YSQT) |
ultimate tensile strength (UTS) | 730 MPa (UTSFP) | 1560 MPa (UTSQT) |
Ball Diameter db [mm] | Deep Rolling Pressure pdr [bar] | Deep Rolling Force Fdr [N] | Feed fdr [mm/rev] | Deep Rolling Velocity vdr [mm/min] |
---|---|---|---|---|
13 | 159 | 2107 | 0.04 | 100 (cylinders) 0.75 (cuboids) |
Workpiece | Inductor Size S [mm] | Feed vft [mm/s] | Maximal Generator Current Imax [A] | Frequency f [kHz] |
---|---|---|---|---|
cuboid | 50 (length) | 900 | 478 | 10.8 |
cylinder | 62 (inner dia.) | 500 | 194 | 180 |
Level | Grinding Wheel | Cutting Speed vc (m/s) | Radial Feed Rate vfr (mm/min) | Depth of Cut ae (mm) | Direction | Depth of Dressing Cut ae,d (mm) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
GMHI | A60P5AV | 1.36 | 0.20 | 0.1 | Down-grinding | 3 × 0.02 |
GMLI | A60P5AV | 14.76 | 0.20 | 0.1 | Down-grinding | 3 × 0.02 |
GTLI | A80CC5V | 35.18 | 2.45 | 0.3 | Up-grinding | 5 × 0.02 |
GTHI | A80CC5V | 35.18 | 4.90 | 0.3 | Up-grinding | 5 × 0.02 |
Level | Cutting Speed vc [m/min] | Feed f [µm/rev] | 1. Depth of Cut ap,1 [µm] | 2. Depth of Cut ap,2 [µm] |
---|---|---|---|---|
PT1S | 100 | 18 | 50 | 0 |
PT2S | 100 | 18 | 30 | 20 |
Level | Input State | 1st Process | 2nd Process | Laser Power [W] | Focus Diam. [µm] | Scan Velocity [mm/s] | Line Spacing [µm] | Rot. Speed [mm/s] | Overrun Cycles [–] |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
LM | QT | Inductive hardening | Laser melting | 70 | 110 | 200 | 60 | 1.2 | 4 |
Level | Initial State | 1st Process | 2nd Process | Laser Power [W] | Rot. Speed [mm/s] | Beam Size [mm2] | Overrun Cycles [–] | Surface Temperatur [°C] |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
LHT700 | QT | Inductive hardening | Laser hardening | 700 | 9 | 10 × 1.5 | 1 | 1250 |
LHT700 | FP | Deep rolling | Laser hardening | 700 | 9 | 10 × 1.5 | 1 | 940 |
LHT800 | FP | Deep rolling | Laser hardening | 800 | 9 | 10 × 1.5 | 1 | 1240 |
Level | Open Circuit Voltage ûi [V] | Discharge Current ie [A] | Discharge Duration te [µs] | Pulse Interval Time t0 [µs] | Machining Depth z [µm] |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
EDM-F1 | 100 | 8 | 14.1 | 28.9 | 250 |
EDM-F2 | 100 | 3.4 | 8.4 | 13.1 | 1000 |
Level | Voltage U [V] | Feed Rate f [mm/min] | Pulse Duration tp [µs] | Pause Duration t0 [µs] | Inlet Pressure P [bar] |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
DC-ECM | 15 | 0.5 | – | – | 2 |
PECM | 25 | 0.075 | 1000 | 1000 | 4 |
Parameter Abbr. [unit] | Primary Beam Diameter db [mm] | Lattice Plane | Tube Voltage U [kV] | Tube Current I [mA] | Ψ Angles 11 between | Step [°2θ] | Range [°2θ] |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
value | 2 | α{211} | 33 | 40 | −45° to +45° | 0.1 | 147 to 163 |
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Borchers, F.; Clausen, B.; Ehle, L.C.; Eich, M.; Epp, J.; Frerichs, F.; Hettig, M.; Klink, A.; Kohls, E.; Lu, Y.; et al. The Influence of Former Process Steps on Changes in Hardness, Lattice and Micro Structure of AISI 4140 Due to Manufacturing Processes. Metals 2021, 11, 1102. https://doi.org/10.3390/met11071102
Borchers F, Clausen B, Ehle LC, Eich M, Epp J, Frerichs F, Hettig M, Klink A, Kohls E, Lu Y, et al. The Influence of Former Process Steps on Changes in Hardness, Lattice and Micro Structure of AISI 4140 Due to Manufacturing Processes. Metals. 2021; 11(7):1102. https://doi.org/10.3390/met11071102
Chicago/Turabian StyleBorchers, Florian, Brigitte Clausen, Lisa C. Ehle, Marco Eich, Jérémy Epp, Friedhelm Frerichs, Matthias Hettig, Andreas Klink, Ewald Kohls, Yang Lu, and et al. 2021. "The Influence of Former Process Steps on Changes in Hardness, Lattice and Micro Structure of AISI 4140 Due to Manufacturing Processes" Metals 11, no. 7: 1102. https://doi.org/10.3390/met11071102