Advancements in Laser Powder Bed Fusion of Carbon Nanotubes-Reinforced AlSi10Mg Alloy: A Comprehensive Analysis of Microstructure Evolution, Properties, and Future Prospects
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. AlSi10Mg Alloy: Composition, Characteristics, and Phase Constituents
1.2. Enhancing Performance through Composite Reinforcements
1.3. L-PBF: Advantages and Applications for AlSi10Mg Alloy Processing
- The high silicon content in the AlSi10Mg alloy’s chemical composition enhances its fluidity by promoting efficient heat dissipation during solidification. This improved fluidity reduces the likelihood of microcrack formation and facilitates the healing of any existing cracks [35].
- AlSi10Mg alloy exhibits low dimensional shrinkage and limited residual stress, thereby reducing its susceptibility to cracking during the solidification process. This characteristic is beneficial for achieving successful fabrication through L-PBF, as it minimizes the occurrence of detrimental cracks [83].
- The solidification range of AlSi10Mg alloy is significantly narrower compared to higher-strength aluminum alloys like the 7000 series. This narrower solidification range makes AlSi10Mg more amenable to the L-PBF process [84]. Additionally, L-PBF technology can accommodate high-temperature heat treatment cycles for the metallic powder feedstocks, further expanding its suitability for fabricating this alloy.
- L-PBF provides exceptional precision in fabricating complex shapes and geometries, which is crucial for producing components with intricate designs and features. This aspect is particularly significant for the AlSi10Mg alloy, commonly employed in the aerospace industry, where tight tolerances and intricate parts are required [14,85,86].
1.4. Evolution of Microstructure in L-PBF-Fabricated AlSi10Mg-Based Parts
2. AlSi10Mg Alloy: Comparing L-PBF with Traditional Fabrication Technologies
3. L-PBF-Printed CNT-Reinforced AlSi10Mg Composites
3.1. Process Variables
3.1.1. Impact of CNTs on Scanning Track Morphology
3.1.2. Impact of Scan Speed on the Distribution of CNTs
3.1.3. Optimizing Laser Energy Density for Densification of CNT-Reinforced AlSi10Mg
3.1.4. Influence of CNTs on Surface Quality
3.2. Microstructure
3.2.1. Powder Feedstock Preparation
- Ball milling is a widely utilized technique for processing composite powder feedstocks in L-PBF manufacturing. It involves the application of high-energy mechanical force to combine nanoparticles with metal powder. This process is typically conducted at room temperature and incorporates a process control agent (PCA). The principal mechanism involved is the repetitive deformation and welding of powder particles through collisions with the grinding balls, resulting in the formation of a fine-grained composite powder. By adjusting the grinding parameters, the processed blend can be optimized. However, this technique has a notable drawback: the resulting composite particles tend to experience undesirable superficial oxidation and exhibit reduced fluidity, leading to a loss of sphericity. These characteristics significantly impact the formability and densification behavior of printed products [152,153];
- Gas or plasma atomization is another technique used for the processing of composite powder feedstocks. In this method, the spherical composite powder is generated by a powder atomizer through the combination of reinforced particles with a molten aluminum alloy. This process yields highly uniform spherical composite powder with excellent flowability. However, it is important to note that this technique is relatively time-consuming and costly [154];
- Electrostatic self-assembly is another approach utilized for the blending of composite powders. It involves the even mixing of two dissimilar powders, where one powder carries a positive surface charge and the other powder carries a negative charge. The electrostatic attraction between the particles enables their uniform distribution. While this technique effectively addresses the limitations associated with ball milling, it is a complex process with limited performance. Moreover, it often leads to poor binding between the particles, as achieving consistent electrical charging can be challenging [155].
3.2.2. Densification Behavior
3.2.3. Dominant Mechanisms in Microstructure Evolution
- In many cases, it is challenging to directly observe CNTs in the microstructure of L-PBF-processed samples. However, the presence of elemental carbon, which confirms the existence of CNTs, can be detected through elemental analysis. The elemental carbon is uniformly distributed within the AlSi10Mg matrix [82]. This suggests that CNTs may undergo partial or complete degradation during high-energy laser irradiation. The observed reduction in CNT length compared to the primary nanotubes and the significant decrease in their volume percentage indicate changes that occur during the L-PBF process [82,158];
- Prior to L-PBF, during the ball milling stage, the entangled CNTs become attached to the surfaces of AlSi10Mg particles while maintaining their tubular morphology. However, when exposed to high-energy laser irradiation, the thermal stability of CNTs is compromised due to defects induced by ball milling. This leads to their thermal decomposition into elemental carbon, which then diffuses within the melt pool as a result of Marangoni flow-induced melt vibration. The elemental carbon undergoes a chemical reaction with the Al matrix, leading to the in-situ formation of Al4C3. Consequently, the outer layer of the CNTs in contact with the Al matrix consists of Al4C3 [134,159];
- During the L-PBF process, a distinctive microstructure develops in CNT-reinforced AlSi10Mg matrix nanocomposites. This microstructure consists of solidified α-Al grains arranged in a cellular morphology, accompanied by a discontinuous network of the silicon phase. The size of the Al cells increases with higher CNT content [160]. Figure 8 depicts the scanning electron microscopy (SEM) image of L-PBF-printed CNT-reinforced AlSi10Mg matrix nanocomposites, clearly identifying both phases, namely eutectic silicon and cellular aluminum [159,161]. The proposed mechanism for the microstructure evolution in these composites is as follows: (i) Initially, the α-Al phase undergoes solidification, leaving residual silicon at the grain boundaries [120]. (ii) Subsequently, the silicon forms a supersaturated Al-Si solid solution, leading to the segregation of coarse elemental silicon particles and Si-Al eutectic sheets at the primary Al grain boundaries. The resulting microstructure, as depicted in Figure 8, exhibits brighter zones corresponding to the eutectic silicon phase segregated from the AlSi10Mg matrix, while darker regions represent the α-Al phase. It is notable that the aluminum regions are surrounded by silicon particles, maintaining their cellular equiaxed grain structure [75];
- Elemental silicon is predominantly concentrated along the grain boundaries of the Al grains. It is deposited in the form of thin eutectic sheets with nanoscale thickness along these boundaries. The precipitation of eutectic silicon becomes more challenging with higher cooling rates employed during L-PBF, resulting in smaller generated precipitates. In other words, a higher LED corresponds to a greater likelihood of silicon particle formation in L-PBF [82];
- Increasing the laser power or LED can promote the growth of primary α-Al grains [82].
3.2.4. Potential Phase Transformations
- CNTs exhibit superior thermal conductivity and possess a large specific surface area, enabling them to efficiently absorb laser energy during the L-PBF process. As a consequence, the CNTs undergo thermal decomposition, leading to either the formation of elemental carbon or their evaporation. The extent of this decomposition is influenced by the laser energy density (LED) applied during L-PBF. Elevated LED values enhance the effectiveness of Marangoni flow, a phenomenon associated with vibrational motion within the melt pool. This intensified fluid dynamics promotes the diffusion of atomic carbon within the molten material, consequently increasing the likelihood of nucleation events for the formation of Al4C3 precipitates;
- AlSi10Mg is prone to chemical interaction with oxygen impurities, leading to the formation of an oxide film on the surface of the melt pool during the L-PBF process. Consequently, the presence of this oxide film can give rise to the occurrence of small Al2O3 precipitates within the aluminum matrix, attributable to the oxidation of the molten material. These precipitates have been found to contribute to the formation of elongated microcracks that propagate toward the surface of the printed component;
- Under sufficiently low cooling rates, the formation of Mg2Si and Al4C3 phases can occur in the AlSi10Mg alloy. The presence of Mg2Si arises from the silicon element’s supersaturation within the AlSi10Mg matrix, while the formation of Al4C3 is a result of a chemical reaction between the decomposed CNTs and the aluminum matrix. It is expected that Al4C3 will predominantly develop on the outer surface of CNTs, specifically at the interface between the nanotubes and the metallic matrix. This phenomenon is depicted in Figure 9, where CNTs are encapsulated by a thin layer of the Al4C3 phase. From a thermodynamic standpoint, the Al4C3 phase can exist within the temperature range of 600 to 1000 °C; however, if the temperature exceeds 1400 °C, it will decompose into elemental aluminum and carbon. Additionally, it should be noted that higher cooling rates in the melt pools, such as those on the order of 104–105 K/s, can diminish the likelihood of Al4C3 formation;
- Although some researchers have hypothesized the presence of the Al9Si phase resulting from the supersaturation of the Al-Si solid solution and the segregation of silicon in the aluminum matrix, no empirical evidence confirming its existence has been reported to date. This is likely due to the low concentrations of Al9Si in the parts produced by L-PBF. Further investigations are required to validate the presence of the Al9Si phase and elucidate its formation mechanism in L-PBF-printed components.
3.2.5. Development of Defects
- The presence of gases in the vicinity of the melt pool, which can dissolve into the solidifying metal;
- Agglomeration of CNTs and entrapment of gases between the particles;
- Superficial adsorption of gases on the high-specific-area CNTs during consolidation and L-PBF;
- Incomplete filling of gaps during the rapid solidification process;
3.2.6. Effect of CNTs on Grain Structure
4. Physico-Mechanical Properties
4.1. Hardness
- In the presence of CNTs, a chemical reaction occurs with the alloy matrix, resulting in the formation of a thin film of in-situ Al4C3 interfacial phase on the outer surfaces of the nanotubes. This thermodynamically stable film plays a crucial role in enhancing load transfer and improving the microhardness of the composite. However, it should be noted that, if the processing conditions, particularly the energy inputs, are set too high, CNTs may undergo thermal decomposition, leading to a decrease in microhardness [82,159];
- With an increase in laser energy density (e.g., from 89 to 131 J/mm3), the microhardness of the material initially improves (e.g., from 115 HV to 145 HV), but then starts to decrease (e.g., 130 HV). The initial improvement can be attributed to the grain refinement effect caused by the presence of nanotubes, which suppresses grain coarsening during the L-PBF process. However, the subsequent decrease in microhardness can be attributed to the change in microstructural features, specifically the transition from equiaxed to columnar grain orientation, which promotes grain growth and reduces the overall hardness of the material [75,169];
- The addition of CNTs to the pristine alloy matrix leads to improved microhardness by inhibiting the atomic diffusion of alloying elements and the subsequent grain coarsening process. Additionally, during the L-PBF process, there is an ample opportunity for the formation of silicon (Si) precipitates, which is facilitated by the L-PBF technique. This results in the presence of cellular equiaxed α-Al and nanometric fibrous eutectic Si in the aluminum (Al) matrix. The Si can exist in the Al matrix as a solid solution, contributing to solid solution strengthening. Therefore, the combined effects of grain refinement strengthening and solid solution strengthening can be considered as two possible mechanisms that enhance the microhardness of CNT-reinforced AlSi10Mg composites [159];
- The increase in laser energy input up to an optimized level can enhance the hardness of the material by promoting the formation of finer silicon (Si) blocky particles within the aluminum (Al) matrix. This is accompanied by the activation of the Orowan strengthening mechanism, which involves the hindrance of dislocation motion by the presence of these particles. Furthermore, the rapid melting and solidification process induced by the high energy input can generate internal stresses, contributing to increased hardness. However, if the energy input exceeds the optimal range, deviations from the desired microhardness can occur. This can be attributed to the formation of microstructural defects, degradation of CNTs, or dissolution of hardening precipitates in the material. These factors can lead to a reduction in the hardness of the composite [82,162,170].
4.2. Tensile Strength
CNT Strengthening Mechanisms
4.3. Coefficient of Thermal Expansion
4.4. Electrical Resistivity
4.5. Wear
5. Challenges and Research Opportunities for CNT-AlSi10Mg Composites
- Dispersion and Alignment: Attaining a homogeneous dispersion and preferentially aligned distribution of CNTs within the AlSi10Mg matrix holds paramount importance in achieving exceptional properties. Challenges arise due to the inherent tendency of CNTs to agglomerate, which leads to inadequate dispersion and inefficiency in load transfer. Overcoming this challenge necessitates the development of effective dispersion techniques and strategies to ensure a uniform distribution throughout the matrix. This issue becomes more complex when employing L-PBF as the densification technique, as the sphericity of the powder feedstock assumes significant importance in this method. Any deficiency in this geometric characteristic can result in the formation of porosity and degradation of mechanical properties;
- Interfacial Bonding: The presence of weak interfacial bonding between CNTs and the AlSi10Mg matrix hampers efficient load transfer between the reinforcement and the matrix, thereby compromising the overall mechanical performance. Enhancing the interfacial bonding is crucial to maximize the potential benefits of CNTs in AlSi10Mg composites. Strategies such as surface functionalization and interfacial engineering can be explored to improve interfacial interactions.
- Thermal Stability: The L-PBF process entails high-temperature conditions that have the potential to degrade CNTs, thereby impacting their structural integrity and properties. Preserving the thermal stability of nanotubes during the L-PBF process is crucial to retain their advantageous characteristics. Novel approaches, including the application of protective coatings or the use of hybrid reinforcement systems, can be investigated to enhance the thermal stability of CNTs.
- Porosity and Defect Control: The authors propose the development of techniques aimed at minimizing porosity and defects in nanocomposites consisting of CNTs and an AlSi10Mg matrix densified via L-PBF. This can be achieved through the optimization of process parameters, manipulation of powder feedstock characteristics, or the implementation of post-processing treatments. By carefully fine-tuning process parameters and optimizing the properties of the powder feedstock, researchers can effectively reduce the occurrence of porosity and defects within the fabricated nanocomposites. Furthermore, the application of appropriate post-processing treatments can further enhance the overall mechanical properties of the materials. Through these advancements, the quality and performance of L-PBF-densified CNT-AlSi10Mg nanocomposites can be significantly improved.
- Multi-Scale Modeling: The authors propose the utilization of advanced modeling techniques, such as finite element analysis (FEA) or molecular dynamics (MD) simulations, to acquire a comprehensive understanding of the interactions occurring between CNTs and the AlSi10Mg matrix within nanocomposites. By employing these sophisticated computational tools, researchers can gain valuable insights into the mechanical behavior, stress transfer mechanisms, and failure modes occurring at different length scales. This enhanced understanding enables more precise design and optimization of CNT-reinforced AlSi10Mg composites. Through the application of FEA or MD simulations, researchers can evaluate and predict the performance of these nanocomposites, providing valuable guidance for future design and development efforts.
- Property–Performance Relationships: The authors propose an investigation into the correlation between the microstructure, processing parameters, and resulting properties of nanocomposites composed of CNTs and an AlSi10Mg matrix. This endeavor entails employing comprehensive characterization techniques, including mechanical testing, microstructural analysis, and measurements of electrical and thermal conductivity. By utilizing these techniques, researchers can establish clear relationships between the material composition, processing conditions, and the desired performance attributes. Through systematic analysis, it becomes possible to gain valuable insights into the influence of microstructural features and processing parameters on the mechanical, electrical, and thermal properties of CNT-AlSi10Mg nanocomposites. This knowledge is instrumental in guiding future material design and processing optimizations for enhanced performance.
6. Conclusions
- By exercising meticulous control over laser power, scanning speed, and layer thickness during the L-PBF process, the microstructure of CNT-AlSi10Mg nanocomposites can be finely tuned. The addition of CNTs to the AlSi10Mg matrix brings about notable enhancements in various properties, including wear resistance, electrical and thermal conductivity, tensile strength, thermal expansion characteristics, and hardness. The incorporation of CNTs imparts reinforcing effects, thereby yielding superior mechanical performance when compared to the pure AlSi10Mg alloy.
- In light of recent research endeavors, a conspicuous dearth of data emerges concerning several critical aspects within the realm of CNT-reinforced AlSi10Mg nanocomposites. These encompass the establishment of an optimal CNT content necessary for the formation of an appropriate percolation network within the aluminum matrix, the quantitative evaluation of CNT agglomeration tendencies, the induction of residual stress within the matrix as a consequence of CNT integration, the potential necessity for supplementary heat treatments, and the possible occurrence of undesirable chemical reactions between CNTs and the metallic matrix leading to the consequential diminishment of physico-mechanical properties. These parameters and practical variables offer promising avenues for future research initiatives, warranting focused attention to unravel their intricacies and implications.
- The impact of processing parameters on both the microstructure and properties of CNT-AlSi10Mg nanocomposites was subjected to comprehensive investigation. The findings highlight the pivotal role of optimized processing conditions, particularly laser power and scanning speed, in attaining favorable microstructural characteristics and mechanical properties. Precise adjustment of these parameters enables control over grain size, porosity, and the distribution of CNTs, thereby exerting a significant influence on the overall performance of the nanocomposites.
- Significant attention is directed towards the characterization of physico-mechanical properties, encompassing wear resistance, electrical and thermal conductivities, tensile strength, thermal expansion, and hardness. These properties hold paramount importance across diverse applications such as aerospace, automotive, and electronics industries, where the demand for lightweight materials exhibiting exceptional mechanical and functional characteristics is particularly high. Accurate characterization of these properties enables researchers and engineers to assess the suitability and performance of CNT-AlSi10Mg nanocomposites for specific application requirements.
- Several challenges and research opportunities in the field of CNT-AlSi10Mg nanocomposites have been identified. These include the dispersion and alignment of CNTs, interfacial bonding between CNTs and the matrix, and ensuring the thermal stability of CNTs during the L-PBF process. Further investigation is required to address these challenges effectively. Subsequent research endeavors ought to concentrate on the elucidation of sophisticated dispersion methodologies, interfacial engineering tactics, and fortifying coatings in order to surmount these obstacles and actualize the complete capability of CNT-AlSi10Mg nanocomposites. By addressing these challenges and exploring the research opportunities, the full potential of CNT-AlSi10Mg nanocomposites can be realized, leading to advancements in their mechanical, thermal, and electrical properties.
- This paper illuminates the recent advancements and inherent challenges encountered in the L-PBF process of CNT-AlSi10Mg nanocomposites, facilitating a comprehensive comprehension of the mechanisms governing microstructure formation and mechanical properties. The discoveries put forth in this study hold substantial value as a valuable reference for researchers and engineers who aspire to refine the manufacturing methodologies and enhance the functional characteristics of CNT-AlSi10Mg nanocomposites across various application domains.
- A comprehensive review of quantitative findings from recent literature underscores the significant focus on microhardness, wear rate, ultimate tensile strength (UTS), and relative density as key research parameters. It is observed that the maximum values for these properties reach 151 HV, , 756 MPa, and 99.7%, respectively. Importantly, these values are highly contingent on factors such as CNT content, the dispersion technique employed, and operational parameters.
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Chemical Composition | Reinforcement Content (wt%) | Dispersion Method | Densification Technology | Considerations | Operational Parameters | Measured Properties | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
CNT-AlSi10Mg | 1 wt% | Slurry ball milling and planetary ball milling | SLM | First, CNTs were added to the slurry and then ball milled by a planetary ball milling machine. |
| Reachable relative density: 90–97% Residual stress: 0–124 MPa Vickers Hardness: 123 HV (vs. 95–105 HV for pure alloy) Electrical resistivity: 0.11 to 0.52 μΩ cm vs. 4.42 μΩ cm for pure alloy | [82] |
CNT-AlSi10Mg | 1 wt% | Ultrasonication and stirring | SLM | A zig-zag scan strategy was used based on which the substrate should be rotated 90 degrees before starting the next layer. |
| Roughness: 7–16 μm Maximum relative density: 98.53% Maximum hardness: 143.33 HV Reachable tensile strength: 499 MPa Maximum elongation: 7.6% | [135] |
CNT-AlSi10Mg | 0.5 wt% | Planetary ball milling | SLM | To avoid oxidation of the CNTs/AlSi10Mg mixture during SLM, substrate was pre-heated up to 150 °C. |
| Roughness: 2–5.5 Maximum roughness: 9.7 μm maximum hardness: 128 HV (vs. 126.99 HV for pure alloy) Maximum relative density: 99.3% Average yield strength: 380 MPa (vs. 329 MPa) Elongation: 7% (vs. 9%) wear rate about 33% lower than that of pure AlSi10Mg | [144] |
CNT-AlSi10Mg | 1 wt% | Planetary ball milling | SLM | The composite manufacturing was carried out in the argon atmosphere to prevent oxidation. |
| Microhardness: 151.17 HV (vs. 120.15 HV for pure alloy) Average tensile strength: 498.6 MPa (vs. 439.2 MPa for pure alloy) Yield strength: 309.6 MPa vs. 270.7 MPa for pure alloy) Elongation: 10.6% (vs. 7.5% for pure alloy) | [159] |
CNT-AlSi10Mg | 0.01 wt% 0.05 wt% 0.1 wt% 0.5 wt% 1 wt% 2 wt% 5 wt% | Ultrasonication-assisted colloidal mixing | Directed energy deposition (DED) | AlSi10Mg powder particles benefit from good sphericity and smooth surfaces, with limited number of planetary particles adhered. |
| Microhardness: 88.8–105.8 HV (vs. 87 HV for pure alloy) | [200] |
MWCNT-AlSi10Mg | 2 wt% | Combination of low-energy wet-milling and high-energy dry-milling | Spark Plasma Sintering (SPS) | The as-received AlSi10Mg/CNTs was added during the dry-milling stage. |
| Compressive yield strength: 211 MPa (vs. 44 MPa for pure alloy) Ultimate strain: 31.5% (vs. 32.5% for pure alloy) | [201] |
CNT-AlSi10Mg | 1 wt% | Ball milling | SLM | The unique integrity and structure of CNTs are more likely to be damaged during SLM process due to high operational temperature and rapid solidification. |
| Density: 2.545–2.585 gr/cm3 Microhardness:121.4–143.7 HV Tensile strength: 412 MPa (vs. 356 MPa) Elongation: 4.3% (vs. 5.5%) | [75] |
CNT-AlSi10Mg | unknown | friction stir processing (FSP) | SLM | FSP process was conducted on SLM-fabricated CNT-AlSi10Mg nanocomposite for more uniformilty. |
| Hardness after SLM: 98 HV Hardness after FSP and SLM: 115 | [170] |
CNT-AlSi10Mg | 0.2–1.5 wt% | mechanical ball milling | SPS | Before ball milling, CNT were acid-washed in H2SO4 |
| UTS: 337 MPa (vs. 151 MPa) Yield strength: 241 MPa (vs. 82 MPa) Elongation: 1.9% (vs. 9.16%) | [202] |
CNT-AlSi10Mg | 0.5–2.5 wt% | High-energy ball milling | SPS | A varying thermal cycle was carried out to reach SPS temperature. |
| Reachable relative density: 99.7% Maximum hardness: 98 HV Compressive strength: 756 MPa Optimal Wear rate: (vs. ) | [203] |
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Abedi, M.; Moskovskikh, D.; Nepapushev, A.; Suvorova, V.; Wang, H.; Romanovski, V. Advancements in Laser Powder Bed Fusion of Carbon Nanotubes-Reinforced AlSi10Mg Alloy: A Comprehensive Analysis of Microstructure Evolution, Properties, and Future Prospects. Metals 2023, 13, 1619. https://doi.org/10.3390/met13091619
Abedi M, Moskovskikh D, Nepapushev A, Suvorova V, Wang H, Romanovski V. Advancements in Laser Powder Bed Fusion of Carbon Nanotubes-Reinforced AlSi10Mg Alloy: A Comprehensive Analysis of Microstructure Evolution, Properties, and Future Prospects. Metals. 2023; 13(9):1619. https://doi.org/10.3390/met13091619
Chicago/Turabian StyleAbedi, Mohammad, Dmitry Moskovskikh, Andrey Nepapushev, Veronika Suvorova, Haitao Wang, and Valentin Romanovski. 2023. "Advancements in Laser Powder Bed Fusion of Carbon Nanotubes-Reinforced AlSi10Mg Alloy: A Comprehensive Analysis of Microstructure Evolution, Properties, and Future Prospects" Metals 13, no. 9: 1619. https://doi.org/10.3390/met13091619