Low-Cost Thermohygrometers to Assess Thermal Comfort in the Built Environment: A Laboratory Evaluation of Their Measurement Performance
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Reliability of Temperature and Relative Humidity Low-Cost Sensors
1.2. Thermal Comfort in a Human-Centered Perspective
- Each user has their perception when exposed to certain environmental stimuli;
- Each user has their own behavioral, physiological, and psychological responses to environmental stimuli;
- Each user has an environmental quality preference, which depends not only on the environmental stimuli but also on other external factors (e.g., gender, age, culture, expectations).
1.3. Thermal Comfort in a Multi-Domain Perspective
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Hardware and Software Configuration
- Arduino Mega 2560 Rev3;
- Arduino Wireless SD shield;
- RTC module based on DS1307 chip;
- DHT22 air temperature and relative humidity sensor;
- DHT11 air temperature and relative humidity sensor;
- DHT20 air temperature and relative humidity sensor;
- SHT85 air temperature and relative humidity sensor;
- SHTC3 air temperature and relative humidity sensor;
- SCD30 sensor for CO2 concentration, air temperature and relative humidity;
- BME680 sensor for pressure, air temperature and relative humidity.
2.2. Data Processing and Analysis
- Scenario 1: air-conditioned indoor spaces in winter and PMV calculation;
- Scenario 2: outdoor climate in summer and UTCI calculation.
3. Results
3.1. Air Temperature and Relative Humidity of the Four Reference Sensors
3.2. Results of Test Lab of Air Temperature from Low-Cost Sensors
3.3. Results of Test Lab of Relative Humidity from Low-Cost Sensors
3.4. Thermal Comfort Index Comparison
- The main steps of a procedure for evaluating low-cost sensors in a controlled environment by direct comparison with reference sensors were described; they can be summarized as follows:
- A guard ring of reference sensors must be considered around the sensors to be analyzed to eliminate possible spatial differences in the measured variables. The desired accuracy for these sensors could be at least ±0.2 °C for air temperatures and at least ±3% for relative humidity for thermal comfort assessment.
- The plane on which the different sensors are placed should be as small as possible to avoid spatial differences in the measured variables.
- Consider possible hot spots as well, the presence of which should be checked with a thermographic camera when the sensors are working, and determine the position of the reference sensors to avoid overheating effects.
- Determine the ranges of air temperature and relative humidity that are consistent with the scope of the research.
- Define the number of cycles in the climatic chamber in accordance with the scope of the research. If is not possible to carry out the analysis for longer periods, it would be useful to repeat the test for a shorter period before and after the research study.
- Compare the performance of the low-cost sensors with the average values recorded by the reference sensors, and possibly apply a simple regression analysis to better match the raw data from low-cost sensors with that of reference sensors.
- Low-cost sensors are not necessarily less accurate than professional sensors, but they need more attention and initial calibration;
- Except for DHT11, low-cost sensors have an extremely linear behavior compared to professional sensors, and if you determine the regression equation, the derived results in terms of PMV and UTCI can be very satisfactory for all the sensors considered.
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
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Sensor Name [Ref.] | Range Measurement | Resolution | Accuracy | Response Time | Working Temperature | Physical Size | Approximate Price |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
DHT22 [47] | Ta: −40 ÷ 80 °C RH: 0 ÷ 100% | Ta: 0.1 °C RH: 0.1% | Ta: ±0.5 °C RH: ±2% | - | - | 15.1 × 25.1 × 7.7 mm | 10 € |
DHT11 [48] | Ta: −0 ÷ 50 °C RH: 20 ÷ 90% | - | Ta: ±2 °C RH: ±5% | - | - | 17.78 × 26.67 × 7.7 mm | 5 € |
DHT20 [49] | Ta: −40 ÷ 80 °C RH: 0 ÷ 100% | Ta: 0.1 °C RH:0.1% | Ta: ±0.5 °C RH: ±3% | <8 s | - | 12.6 × 16.10 × 5.8 mm | 5 € |
SHT85 [50] | Ta: −40 ÷ 105 °C RH: 0÷100% | Ta: 0.01 °C RH: 0.01% | Ta: ±0.1 °C RH: ±1.5% | Ta: >2 s RH: 8 s | - | 4.9 × 17.8 × 2.1 mm | 35 € |
SHTC3 [51] | Ta: −40 ÷ 125 °C RH: 0 ÷ 100% | Ta: 0.01 °C RH: 0.01% | Ta: ±0.2 °C RH: ±2% | Ta: <5 s RH: 8 s | - | 25.4 × 25.4 × 5 mm | 10 € |
SCD30 [52] | Ta: −40 ÷ 70 °C RH: 0 ÷ 100% | Ta: 0.01 °C RH: 0.01% | Ta: ±(0.4 °C + 0.023 × (T [°C] – 25 °C)) RH: ±3% | Ta: >10 s RH: 8 s | 23.4 × 35 × 7 mm | 60 € | |
BME680 [53] | Ta: − 40 ÷ 85 °C RH: 0 ÷ 100% | Ta: 0.01 °C RH: 0.008% | Ta: ±0.5 °C RH: ±3% | Ta: >10 s RH: 8 s | - | 25.4 × 25.4 × 5 mm | 20 € |
Ref [54,55] | Ta: −40 ÷ 80 °C RH: 0 ÷ 100% | Ta: 0.015 °C RH: 0.1% | Ta: ±0.1 a 0 °C RH: ±2% | Ta: <60 s RH: <100 s | Ta: −40 ÷ 80 °C | 12 × 73 mm | 450 € |
Variable (U.M.) | Description | Scenario 1: Indoors | Scenario 2: Outdoors |
---|---|---|---|
- | Selection criteria | 19 °C < Ta_ref < 21 °C 35% < RH_ref < 55% | Ta_ref > 35 °C |
Ta, dry bulb air temperature (°C) | Count | 565 | 691 |
Mean | 20.43 | 40.03 | |
Dev. st. | 0.22 | 1.59 | |
RH, relative humidity (%) | Count | 565 | 691 |
Mean | 42.11 | 3.30 | |
Dev. st. | 5.15 | 3.64 | |
V, air velocity (m/s) | - | 0.1 | 1 |
Tr, mean radiant temperature (°C) | - | 21 | 35 |
Iclo, clothing insulation (clo) | - | 1 | Default as defined by UTCI clothing model |
Met, metabolic rate (met) | - | 1 | Fixed value as defined by UTCI model: 2.32 |
Sensor | Supply Voltage [V] | Max Supply Current [mA] | Max Power Consumption [mW] |
---|---|---|---|
DHT22 | 5 | 1.5 | 7.5 |
DHT11 | 5 | 2.5 | 12.5 |
DHT20 | 5 | 0.98 | 4.9 |
SHT85 | 5 | 1.5 | 7.5 |
SHTC3 | 3.3 | 0.9 | 2.9 |
SCD30 | 3.3 | 75 | 247.5 |
BME680 | 3.3 | 12 | 39.6 |
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Salamone, F.; Chinazzo, G.; Danza, L.; Miller, C.; Sibilio, S.; Masullo, M. Low-Cost Thermohygrometers to Assess Thermal Comfort in the Built Environment: A Laboratory Evaluation of Their Measurement Performance. Buildings 2022, 12, 579. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings12050579
Salamone F, Chinazzo G, Danza L, Miller C, Sibilio S, Masullo M. Low-Cost Thermohygrometers to Assess Thermal Comfort in the Built Environment: A Laboratory Evaluation of Their Measurement Performance. Buildings. 2022; 12(5):579. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings12050579
Chicago/Turabian StyleSalamone, Francesco, Giorgia Chinazzo, Ludovico Danza, Clayton Miller, Sergio Sibilio, and Massimiliano Masullo. 2022. "Low-Cost Thermohygrometers to Assess Thermal Comfort in the Built Environment: A Laboratory Evaluation of Their Measurement Performance" Buildings 12, no. 5: 579. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings12050579