You seem to have javascript disabled. Please note that many of the page functionalities won't work as expected without javascript enabled.

Search for Articles:

Title / Keyword

Author / Affiliation / Email

Journal

Article Type

Advanced Search

Section

Special Issue

Volume

Issue

Number

Page

Logical OperatorOperator

Search Text

Search Type

Evaluation of Worker Fatigue During Exoskeleton-Assisted Tasks with Varying Intensities
The Effect of Street Orientation on the Temporal Variation in Thermal Environment Within Streets in Different Climate Zones
Training for Sustainable and Healthy Building for 2050 Part 2: Incorporation of New Knowledge and Dissemination for the Sustainability of the Trans-European Training Experience
“True” Accessibility Barriers of Heritage Buildings

Journal Description

Buildings

Buildings is an international, peer-reviewed, open access journal on building science, building engineering and architecture published semimonthly online by MDPI. The International Council for Research and Innovation in Building and Construction (CIB) is affiliated with Buildings and their members receive a discount on the article processing charges.

Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
High Visibility: indexed within SCIE (Web of Science), Scopus, Ei Compendex, Inspec, and other databases.
Journal Rank: JCR - Q2 (Construction and Building Technology) / CiteScore - Q1 (Architecture)
Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 14.9 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 2.7 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the first half of 2025).
Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.
Companion Journal: Architecture.
Journal Cluster of Civil Engineering and Built Environment: Architecture, Buildings, CivilEng, Construction Materials, Infrastructures, Intelligent Infrastructure and Construction, NDT and Vibration.

Impact Factor: 3.1 (2024); 5-Year Impact Factor: 3.2 (2024)

Imprint Information Journal Flyer Open Access ISSN: 2075-5309

Latest Articles

19 pages, 1035 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study on Risk Assessment and Risk Prevention of Dam Failure During the Operation Period of Tailings Pond

by Tao Gao, Zhihai Qin, Ruifang Yang, Quanming Li, Chao Geng, Jin Zhang and Zhengfa Chen

Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2833; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162833 (registering DOI) - 11 Aug 2025

There is a huge risk of dam failure during the operation of tailings ponds. Domestic and foreign scholars have conducted extensive research on the assessment and prevention of dam failure risks during the operation of tailings ponds, but there are still many shortcomings. [...] Read more.

There is a huge risk of dam failure during the operation of tailings ponds. Domestic and foreign scholars have conducted extensive research on the assessment and prevention of dam failure risks during the operation of tailings ponds, but there are still many shortcomings. On the basis of exploring the key issues of dam failure risk assessment during the operation of tailings dams, this paper establishes a comprehensive evaluation index system for dam failure risk during the operation of tailings dams based on ten principles including scientificity, systematicity, and operability. By exploring the use of the change statistical mapping method, we can determine the weight of indicators. A risk assessment model was constructed using the fuzzy comprehensive evaluation method; compared to the traditional fuzzy comprehensive evaluation method, this model determines weights in a more extensive and scientific manner. The scientific and effective nature of the model was verified through case analysis of the Shouyun Iron Mine and Shangyu Tailings Reservoir in Beijing. Finally, in response to the risk of dam failure during the operation of tailings ponds, scientific prevention and control measures were proposed from four aspects: personnel risk prevention and control, inherent risk prevention and control of tailings ponds, environmental factor risk prevention and control, and management risk prevention and control. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

16 pages, 2443 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Durability of Concrete Reinforced with GFRP Bars Under Varying Alkalinity and Temperature Conditions

by Ruan Carlos de Araújo Moura, Daniel Véras Ribeiro and Paulo Roberto Lopes Lima

Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2832; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162832 (registering DOI) - 9 Aug 2025

The application of glass fiber reinforced polymer (GFRP) bars offers a promising solution for enhancing the durability of reinforced concrete structures, potentially reducing maintenance costs and associated socioeconomic impacts. However, concerns persist regarding the durability of GFRP bars in the highly alkaline environment [...] Read more.

The application of glass fiber reinforced polymer (GFRP) bars offers a promising solution for enhancing the durability of reinforced concrete structures, potentially reducing maintenance costs and associated socioeconomic impacts. However, concerns persist regarding the durability of GFRP bars in the highly alkaline environment of concrete, which can lead to physical, chemical, and mechanical degradation. This study evaluates the durability of GFRP bars composed of isophthalic polyester, vinyl ester, and epoxy matrices (6.0 mm diameter) under accelerated aging conditions. The bars were exposed to non-carbonated concrete (with and without silica fume) and carbonated concrete at temperatures of 23 °C, 40 °C, and 60 °C for durations of 500, 1000, and 3000 h. Interlaminar shear strength (ISS) was measured before and after aging. SEM and FTIR analyses confirmed degradation in the polymer matrix and fiber–matrix interface. Results indicated that silica fume significantly mitigated alkalinity effects, limiting ISS loss to 11.3%. Similarly, carbonation reduced the concrete’s pH, thereby decreasing ISS degradation to 10.7% after 3000 h. Among the tested materials, GFRP bars with vinyl ester matrix exhibited superior durability, followed by those with epoxy and polyester matrices. These findings emphasize the critical role of matrix selection and concrete mix design in improving GFRP durability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on the Durability of Reinforced Concrete Structures)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

16 pages, 1217 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Beyond Short-Term Success: Developing an FCE-Based Framework for User Satisfaction in China’s Industrial Heritage Regeneration

by Xuesen Zheng, Sifan Guo and Timothy Heath

Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2831; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162831 (registering DOI) - 9 Aug 2025

Despite significant progress in industrial heritage regeneration, limited attention to post-occupancy operation and maintenance has caused many projects to decline after initial success. This is largely due to the failure to adapt to evolving user needs, highlighting the importance of understanding user experiences. [...] Read more.

Despite significant progress in industrial heritage regeneration, limited attention to post-occupancy operation and maintenance has caused many projects to decline after initial success. This is largely due to the failure to adapt to evolving user needs, highlighting the importance of understanding user experiences. This study aims to develop a scientific and systematic method for evaluating user satisfaction in reused industrial heritage projects. Recognizing the critical role of user needs in project sustainability, the research adopts a user-centered approach to assess spatial experiences. Qualitative feedback was collected through open-ended interviews with the users of two reused buildings—an exhibition hall and a commercial space—within Bingshan Wisdom Park in China. The data were analyzed using frequency-based categorization to construct evaluation factor sets, weight sets, and satisfaction sets. The Fuzzy Comprehensive Evaluation (FCE) method was then applied to quantify overall user satisfaction. Results indicate that satisfaction with the exhibition hall is driven by four key experiential dimensions, while the commercial space is evaluated across five distinct factors. Furthermore, the method enables uniform quantification across different project types for comparative analysis. The proposed approach provides a replicable framework for identifying strengths and weaknesses in user satisfaction, thereby supporting the long-term viability of industrial heritage regeneration projects. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Architectural Design, Urban Science, and Real Estate)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

16 pages, 2576 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Viscoelastic and Damping Behavior of Composed Modified Asphalt for Functional Interlayers in Photovoltaic Pavements

by Jianrong Rao, Yian Zhao, Xichun Cao, Jiantao Li and Jinbo Xie

Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2830; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162830 (registering DOI) - 9 Aug 2025

This study presents the development and performance evaluation of a rock asphalt-modified damping asphalt binder tailored for interlayer applications in photovoltaic pavement systems. A series of composite binders was formulated by incorporating Qingchuan rock asphalt, crumb rubber powder, and SBS polymer into base [...] Read more.

This study presents the development and performance evaluation of a rock asphalt-modified damping asphalt binder tailored for interlayer applications in photovoltaic pavement systems. A series of composite binders was formulated by incorporating Qingchuan rock asphalt, crumb rubber powder, and SBS polymer into base asphalt using an orthogonal design approach. The effects of different modifiers and their interactions were systematically assessed through conventional physical tests, DSR, BBR and damping ratio measurements. Furthermore, full-scale specimens (30 cm × 30 cm) were subjected to both single-pass and 24 h sustained loading tests to simulate real-world stress conditions. The results revealed that rock asphalt (RA) significantly enhanced the high-temperature stiffness and rutting resistance, while SBS improved ductility and low-temperature flexibility. Rubber powder (RP) notably increased the damping ratio, demonstrating superior energy dissipation potential. Among the nine formulations, the ternary blend of SBS, RA, and RP (denoted as L5) exhibited the most balanced and optimal performance, with G*/sinδ exceeding 5.0 kPa at 64 °C, a ductility of 132 cm, and damping ratios above 0.14. Load testing confirmed the material’s capacity for both instantaneous deformation resistance and delayed elastic recovery. These findings suggest that the L5 formulation is well suited for use in smart pavements where both mechanical durability and vibration attenuation are required. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Performance-Based Asphalt and Asphalt Mixtures)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

25 pages, 2128 KiB

Open AccessReview

Enhancing Outdoor Environmental Comfort: A Review of Façade-Surface Strategies and Microclimate Impacts

by Zahida Khan and Mehdi Ghiai

Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2829; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162829 (registering DOI) - 9 Aug 2025

Building façades traditionally focus on enhancing indoor environmental quality and improving energy performance, but undermine their influence on Outdoor Environmental Comfort (OEC), including thermal, acoustic, and visual conditions. With technological advancements in envelope design, research on new materials and green systems has been [...] Read more.

Building façades traditionally focus on enhancing indoor environmental quality and improving energy performance, but undermine their influence on Outdoor Environmental Comfort (OEC), including thermal, acoustic, and visual conditions. With technological advancements in envelope design, research on new materials and green systems has been introduced in the last few decades. This review examines the role of two key elements—façade materials and green façades—in shaping OEC. A total of 41 peer-reviewed studies (24 on urban scale and 17 on building scale) were categorized into three focus areas: (1) outdoor thermal comfort; (2) outdoor acoustic comfort; and (3) outdoor visual comfort. The analysis was structured across three levels: (a) Performance Determinants; (b) Metrics/Models; and (c) Material or Façade Types. We proposed this analytical structure to highlight the interactions between building façades and OEC domains (thermal, acoustic, and visual comfort). Our results showed façade treatment can impact all three comfort factors related to OEC, but trade-offs must be evaluated. Moreover, the findings highlighted that additional research is required to cover variations in both climate and context conditions, due to their close association with the OEC. Finally, the conceptual framework is presented to synthesize the three comfort domains for sustainable outdoor environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Buildings' Thermal Performance and Energy Efficiency for a Sustainable Construction)

34 pages, 5859 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Economics of Adaptive Reuse—Comparative Cost Analysis of Revitalization vs. Demolition and Reconstruction at Radex Park Marywilska

by Janusz Sobieraj, Marcos Fernandez and Dominik Metelski

Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2828; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162828 (registering DOI) - 8 Aug 2025

The revitalization of post-industrial areas has emerged as a critical strategy for sustainable urban development, achieving a balance between economic, social, and environmental priorities. This study assesses the transformative capacity of revitalization strategies by conducting a comprehensive case analysis of “Radex Park Marywilska” [...] Read more.

The revitalization of post-industrial areas has emerged as a critical strategy for sustainable urban development, achieving a balance between economic, social, and environmental priorities. This study assesses the transformative capacity of revitalization strategies by conducting a comprehensive case analysis of “Radex Park Marywilska” in Warsaw, Poland. The analysis quantifies the benefits of revitalization in comparison to demolition and new construction methodologies. An examination of the revitalization initiative demonstrates that it yielded a total of PLN 41.15 million in benefits, with PLN 28.13 million attributed to direct cost savings and another PLN 13.02 million resulting from environmental improvements. In practical terms, this equates to a return of PLN 1.93 for every PLN 1 invested—a notably efficient outcome. The project transformed four industrial buildings, significantly increasing usable space in some (e.g., Building L1 by 345% and K1 by 21.6%) while slightly reducing it in others (B1 by 4.7% and I1 by 10.5%). From an environmental impact perspective, the success was staggering: 48,217 tons of carbon dioxide emissions were prevented, and 72,315 tons of building waste were diverted from landfills. To these figures, the study further adds a return in economic activity, the generation of new jobs, and improvement in local infrastructure. The retrofitting of historical buildings to contemporary standards has encountered numerous challenges; nonetheless, the implementation of circular economy principles has succeeded in negating such challenges. Generally, the results show economic, environmental, and social benefits of revitalization projects compared to new, greenfield projects. The case study provides valuable lessons to policymakers and urban planners, rendering adaptive reuse a fundamental approach in achieving sustainable urban development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Architectural Design, Urban Science, and Real Estate)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

33 pages, 19346 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Three-Dimensional Intelligent Understanding and Preventive Conservation Prediction for Linear Cultural Heritage

by Ruoxin Wang, Ming Guo, Yaru Zhang, Jiangjihong Chen, Yaxuan Wei and Li Zhu

Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2827; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162827 (registering DOI) - 8 Aug 2025

This study proposes an innovative method that integrates multi-source remote sensing technologies and artificial intelligence to meet the urgent needs of deformation monitoring and ecohydrological environment analysis in Great Wall heritage protection. By integrating synthetic aperture radar (InSAR) technology, low-altitude oblique photogrammetry models, [...] Read more.

This study proposes an innovative method that integrates multi-source remote sensing technologies and artificial intelligence to meet the urgent needs of deformation monitoring and ecohydrological environment analysis in Great Wall heritage protection. By integrating synthetic aperture radar (InSAR) technology, low-altitude oblique photogrammetry models, and the three-dimensional Gaussian splatting model, an integrated air–space–ground system for monitoring and understanding the Great Wall is constructed. Low-altitude tilt photogrammetry combined with the Gaussian splatting model, through drone images and intelligent generation algorithms (e.g., generative adversarial networks), quickly constructs high-precision 3D models, significantly improving texture details and reconstruction efficiency. Based on the 3D Gaussian splatting model of the AHLLM-3D network, the integration of point cloud data and the large language model achieves multimodal semantic understanding and spatial analysis of the Great Wall’s architectural structure. The results show that the multi-source data fusion method can effectively identify high-risk deformation zones (with annual subsidence reaching −25 mm) and optimize modeling accuracy through intelligent algorithms (reducing detail error by 30%), providing accurate deformation warnings and repair bases for Great Wall protection. Future studies will further combine the concept of ecological water wisdom to explore heritage protection strategies under multi-hazard coupling, promoting the digital transformation of cultural heritage preservation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Insights on the Intelligent Preservation of Architectural Heritage)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

17 pages, 15448 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation and Improvement of Daylighting Performance with the Use of Light Shelves in Mosque Prayer Halls with a Dome Structure: A Comparative Study of Four Cases in Saudi Arabia

by Mohammed Alkhater, Muna Alsukkar and Yuehong Su

Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2826; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162826 - 8 Aug 2025

Daylighting plays a pivotal role in mosques, shaping their sacred atmosphere and enhancing the spiritual experience for worshippers. Beyond a mere architectural consideration, the integration of natural light into mosque design fundamentally influences the ambiance and functionality of these religious spaces. This study [...] Read more.

Daylighting plays a pivotal role in mosques, shaping their sacred atmosphere and enhancing the spiritual experience for worshippers. Beyond a mere architectural consideration, the integration of natural light into mosque design fundamentally influences the ambiance and functionality of these religious spaces. This study investigates the key factors that enhance daylight levels and visual comfort within prayer halls. It specifically evaluates illuminance levels, light distribution, and glare in four domed mosques located in Saudi Arabia. Field measurements were conducted beneath the domes of these prayer spaces, each featuring clerestory windows of varying forms and dimensions. Based on architectural specifications and material properties, daylight simulations and modeling were performed using the RADIANCE engine integrated with Grasshopper. The simulation results were validated against on-site illuminance measurements to ensure model accuracy and reliability. The primary objective was to assess whether the existing daylighting conditions comply with the recommended illuminance standards for reading and prayer, typically ranging from 150 to 500 lux. This study revealed that the illuminance levels in the central dome area exceeded the recommended values, reaching over 3000 lux. To improve daylight distribution, shading systems such as flat and curved shelves were added to the drum’s windows. This research concludes that the light shelves and vacuum double glazing significantly improved indoor daylight performance by preventing direct sunlight entry into the prayer hall and redirecting it towards the dome. This intervention successfully reduced excessive illuminance levels to a more optimal level of around 447–774 lux during the noon prayer period, ensuring a balanced and comfortable environment for worshippers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Energy, Physics, Environment, and Systems)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

19 pages, 5926 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of High Temperature on the Interfacial Mechanical Properties of Rubber and Calcium Silicate Hydrate: Nanoscale Insights

by Xuejing Zhang, Yongkang Du, Lei Li, Yuan Mei and Chao Wang

Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2825; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162825 - 8 Aug 2025

Currently, the partial substitution of mineral aggregates with rubber particles in the preparation of rubber concrete (RC) is an effective method for recycling waste rubber materials. However, the mechanism of interfacial interactions in RC at high temperatures is not well understood. This study [...] Read more.

Currently, the partial substitution of mineral aggregates with rubber particles in the preparation of rubber concrete (RC) is an effective method for recycling waste rubber materials. However, the mechanism of interfacial interactions in RC at high temperatures is not well understood. This study aims to explore the effect of high temperature on intermolecular interactions at the RC interface and its relationship with macroscopic mechanical properties. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulation technology was employed to construct an RC interface model. The temperature is controlled at room temperature (300 K), medium low temperature (320 K, 340 K, 360 K), and high temperature (500 K, 700 K). The interface model was analyzed from multiple dimensions such as binding energy, turning radius, and interface structure. The results show that the higher the temperature, the more easily water molecules aggregate at the interface of the two phases. As the temperature increases, the proportion of water molecules at the interface increases from 6% to 16%. Since rubber and water molecules cannot form hydrogen bonds, the formation of chemical bonds at the interface between the two phases is affected, leading to a decrease in RC binding energy. The interface bonding energy decreases by 12.6% at a temperature of 700 K. In addition, the radius of gyration of rubber is proportional to temperature. As the temperature increases, the average radius of gyration increases from 5.8 Å to 6.15 Å, and the numerical fluctuation amplitude is greater, resulting in a relatively loose and unstable rubber structure. Furthermore, the bonding strength in RC mainly comes from non-hydrogen bond interactions, and high temperatures cause an increase in bond length while reducing the strength and stability of chemical bonds. Finally, high temperatures increase the atomic movement speed in natural rubber (NR). As the temperature increases, the diffusion coefficients of H_NR and C_NR increase from 0.08 and 0.04 to 1.835 and 1.473, respectively, preventing good connections between atoms at the interface. The study provides nanoscale insights for optimizing RC. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advancing Civil Engineering Construction and Management: Innovations in Green Building, Intelligent Construction, and Sustainable Infrastructure Development)

24 pages, 11442 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Aerodynamic Loading and Wind-Induced Vibration Characteristics of Bridge Girders with Typical Asymmetric Configurations

by Xingyu Chen, Helu Yu, Haowei Yu, Pinyi Zhao and Ming Li

Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2824; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162824 - 8 Aug 2025

The bridge girder’s aerodynamic configuration substantially governs its aerodynamic loading and wind-induced vibration characteristics. Extensive research has been performed to optimize the configuration of girders and implement aerodynamic measures to enhance the bridge’s wind resistance. In some practical bridge engineering projects, the aerodynamic [...] Read more.

The bridge girder’s aerodynamic configuration substantially governs its aerodynamic loading and wind-induced vibration characteristics. Extensive research has been performed to optimize the configuration of girders and implement aerodynamic measures to enhance the bridge’s wind resistance. In some practical bridge engineering projects, the aerodynamic configuration of the bridge girder is asymmetric. However, studies investigating the aerodynamic properties of asymmetric girders are limited. In this paper, the aerodynamic loading and vibration characteristics of the Π-shaped girders and box girders with asymmetric bikeways are experimentally studied. Through an extensive series of wind tunnel experiments, the static wind loading coefficients, flutter derivatives, vortex-induced vibration (VIV) responses, and the critical flutter velocities are compared across varying wind direction angles (WDAs). The experimental results demonstrate that the asymmetric girder configurations have different characteristics in both the static wind loading coefficient and flutter derivative in different WDAs. The influence of WDAs on the above-mentioned aerodynamic force coefficients of the asymmetric Π-shaped girder is more pronounced than that on the asymmetric box girder. For the asymmetric Π-shaped girder, the heaving VIV responses at a 0° WDA are smaller than those at a 180° WDA, but the torsional VIV responses at a 0° WDA are larger. Experimental results for critical flutter velocities indicate that the flutter performance at a 0° WDA is better than that at a 180° WDA, especially at positive angles of attack (AOAs) for the two types of asymmetric bridge girders. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wind Load Effects on High-Rise and Long-Span Structures: 2nd Edition)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

21 pages, 2042 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Theoretical Analysis Model of a New Post-Tensioned, Unbonded, Prestressed Beam–Column Connection

by Hu Qi, Jie Qin, Wenxuan Zhang and Mengke Zhang

Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2823; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162823 - 8 Aug 2025

To investigate the mechanical properties of a new post-tensioned, unbonded, prestressed beam–column connection—including its hysteresis behavior and energy dissipation capacity—a theoretical analysis was conducted. Calculation formulas for key points on the moment–curvature (M-θ) hysteresis curve, including the yield point, failure point, and unloading [...] Read more.

To investigate the mechanical properties of a new post-tensioned, unbonded, prestressed beam–column connection—including its hysteresis behavior and energy dissipation capacity—a theoretical analysis was conducted. Calculation formulas for key points on the moment–curvature (M-θ) hysteresis curve, including the yield point, failure point, and unloading point, were derived. A theoretical model describing the M-θ relationship of the connection was established. The energy dissipation capacity, which is a critical mechanical property of such connections, was quantified through a derived formula for the energy dissipation coefficient, accompanied by a parametric analysis. The results show that increasing the area of energy dissipation reinforcement enhances the energy dissipation capacity of the connection. When the yield strength of the energy dissipation reinforcement equals the initial prestress of the tendons, the energy dissipation coefficient approaches 0.5. Considering the asymmetric reinforcement layout, a self-centering performance evaluation method—accounting for bending moments on both sides of the connection—is proposed. The conditions required to achieve self-centering behavior are derived. Finally, the proposed model is validated through a comparison with experimental results. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

19 pages, 1959 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Achieving Optimum Compressive Strength for Geopolymers Manufactured at Both Low and High Si:Al Values

by Arie van Riessen, Evan Jamieson, Hendrik Gildenhuys, Jarrad Allery and Ramon Skane

Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2822; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162822 (registering DOI) - 8 Aug 2025

Numerous researchers have successfully made alkali-activated material or geopolymer using fly ash, ground granulated blast furnace slag, or metakaolin, either individually or in combination. However, few researchers first determined the reactive Si:Al of their solid precursor and then used this information to develop [...] Read more.

Numerous researchers have successfully made alkali-activated material or geopolymer using fly ash, ground granulated blast furnace slag, or metakaolin, either individually or in combination. However, few researchers first determined the reactive Si:Al of their solid precursor and then used this information to develop a formulation with a specific targeted Si:Al for their alkali-activated material. Even if a targeted Si:Al is chosen, few researchers check if the actual Si:Al of the geopolymer matches the targeted values. Characterisation of the precursor, setting target Si:Al values for the geopolymer and verifying target Si:Al values are present in the geopolymer are all part of quality control and essential if high quality products are to be manufactured. Quality control is critical but does not provide the target Si:Al value. This work presents results from a range of geopolymers made with different Si:Al values using sodium aluminate, sodium hydroxide and sodium silicate, either by themselves or in combination. Results reveal, surprisingly, for samples tested, that compressive strength exhibits a maximum for samples with Si:Al less than and greater than the starting Si:Al of the precursor. A strength minimum was found to be present close to the starting Si:Al of the precursor and between the strength maxima. This new information extends the usability range of aluminosilicate precursors and at the same time, makes available a broader range of applications based on Si:Al. Selection of an optimum Si:Al for a geopolymer based on strength can only be made when first a complete spectrum of Si:Al ratios have been evaluated. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Scientific Developments in Cement-Based and Alternative Materials—2nd Edition)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

24 pages, 1919 KiB

Open AccessReview

Towards Sustainable Road Pavement Construction: A Material Passport Framework

by Helapura Nuwanshi Yasodara Senarathne, Nilmini Pradeepika Weerasinghe, Jey Parthiban, Brook Hall, Jaimi Harrison, Dilan Robert, Guomin (Kevin) Zhang and Sujeeva Setunge

Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2821; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162821 - 8 Aug 2025

Sustainable transport infrastructure, highlighted in Agenda 21, Rio+20, and the 2030 Agenda, promotes resource efficiency and reduced environmental impact. Integrating circular economy principles into road construction supports these goals. However, limited material traceability and insufficient lifecycle information hinder the effective adoption of circular [...] Read more.

Sustainable transport infrastructure, highlighted in Agenda 21, Rio+20, and the 2030 Agenda, promotes resource efficiency and reduced environmental impact. Integrating circular economy principles into road construction supports these goals. However, limited material traceability and insufficient lifecycle information hinder the effective adoption of circular practices in the sector. Material passports have emerged as an enabling tool to address this gap by systematically documenting detailed data on material composition, environmental impact, lifecycle history, and potential for reuse or recycling. Despite growing adoption in the building sector, their application in road infrastructure remains limited. Therefore, this study aims to develop a material passport framework tailored for road pavements to enhance circularity and promote sustainable material management. A two-phase research method was used; first, a structured desk review identified relevant attributes; second, these attributes were categorized into six key domains and organized across three hierarchical levels: product, layer, and material to reflect pavement system complexity. The proposed framework enables multi-level documentation. Thus, the outcome of this study majorly contributes to advancing circular economy practices and the achievement of sustainable development goals by promoting resource efficiency, sustainable infrastructure, and responsible material use across the pavement lifecycle. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advancing Sustainability in the Construction Industry: Integrating Innovation and Practices for Achieving the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

19 pages, 7432 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study on Residual Load-Bearing Capacity of Composite Steel Truss Bridge Girders After Vehicle Fire

by Shichao Wang, Shenquan Zhou, Kan Yang and Gang Zhang

Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2820; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162820 - 8 Aug 2025

To investigate the residual load-bearing capacity of composite steel truss bridge girders after vehicle fire, a 100 m simple supported composite steel truss bridge girder was selected as the research object, and a typical oil tanker fire was taken as the fire scenario. [...] Read more.

To investigate the residual load-bearing capacity of composite steel truss bridge girders after vehicle fire, a 100 m simple supported composite steel truss bridge girder was selected as the research object, and a typical oil tanker fire was taken as the fire scenario. This study identifies the most critical conditions associated with an oil tanker fire and outlines the degradation pattern of the residual load-bearing capacity of composite steel truss bridge girders after a vehicle fire. It also proposes a damage classification standard and an evaluation method for the load-bearing capacity based on the structural failure path and load-displacement curve. The results indicate that the most critical scenario during a vehicle fire occurs when the fire is located on the bridge deck, particularly in the middle section of the longitudinal bridge and the outermost lane of the transverse bridge. During a vehicle fire, the top chord is the component most affected by the thermal history. Under immersion cooling conditions, the remaining load-bearing capacity of the girder decreases more significantly compared with natural cooling. After the fire, the upper chord first reaches the yield strength, causing load transfer to adjacent horizontal inclined members. The stress of the horizontal inclined rod will develop rapidly, leading to structural instability and eventual failure. Four grades of load-bearing capacity damage for composite steel truss bridge girders after vehicle fire are defined to serve as references for practical engineering applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

33 pages, 680 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Building Green, Consuming Embodied Energy? Cradle-to-Gate Embodied Energy Assessment of Green Office Buildings for a Sustainable Built Environment in Sri Lanka

by Iddamalgoda Pathiranage Tharindu Sandaruwan, Chamari Allis and Mohan Siriwardena

Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2819; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162819 - 8 Aug 2025

The green building (GB) concept was introduced to reduce the environmental impact of buildings and to achieve a sustainable built environment. Nevertheless, GBs are more focused on reducing operational energy, which has led to the neglect of embodied energy (EE). Thus, as a [...] Read more.

The green building (GB) concept was introduced to reduce the environmental impact of buildings and to achieve a sustainable built environment. Nevertheless, GBs are more focused on reducing operational energy, which has led to the neglect of embodied energy (EE). Thus, as a novelty, this study assessed the construction material-related (cradle-to-gate) EE of green office buildings in Sri Lanka using the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) methodology. Accordingly, two platinum-rated green office buildings were selected as case studies. The results revealed that the cradle-to-gate EE in Case A is 60,366.38 GJ, and in Case B, it is 21,963.11 GJ. The EE is 6.35 GJ/m² and 11.68 GJ/m² for the gross floor area in Case A and Case B, respectively. It was shown that reinforcement steel was the primary EE material, contributing 48.64% of the total EE in Case A and 23.77% of the total EE in Case B. Results highlighted that replacing the high EE materials with the low EE materials can reduce ~43% of the total EE in Case A and ~33% in Case B. This study utilised proxy data from country-specific literature sources and data from ICE, as there was no EE coefficient database available in Sri Lanka. The findings of this study can help construction industry stakeholders reduce EE and related carbon emissions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Asset Management for Sustainable Built Environment)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

28 pages, 3584 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Potential of CNT-Enhanced Steel-Reinforced Concrete to Reduce the Impact of Water Management Facilities

by Marco Antonio Sánchez-Burgos, Aikaterini-Flora Trompeta and Pilar Mercader-Moyano

Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2818; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162818 - 8 Aug 2025

The growth of urban areas and climate change affect the performance of water management, increasing the rate of flooding and decreasing the quality of available water. To address this issue, the sustainable urban drainage systems (SUDs) and conventional urban drainage systems (UDIs) must [...] Read more.

The growth of urban areas and climate change affect the performance of water management, increasing the rate of flooding and decreasing the quality of available water. To address this issue, the sustainable urban drainage systems (SUDs) and conventional urban drainage systems (UDIs) must be promoted. In both systems, grey infrastructure plays an important role, in the form of reinforced concrete tanks, filters, and water treatment plants. Nowadays, the use of reinforced concrete is a major contributor of the environmental impact of human activities environmental impacts. This study aims to assess the potential of nanoparticle-based concrete to mitigate the environmental impacts of water management facilities. To achieve this target, a comparative Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) analysis was performed on a multi walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) based concrete, and a conventional one. To evaluate the corresponding benefits, a Functional Unit has been defined representing a frequently used element in water management facilities. The conducted review found no similar research. It is noted that the functional units used in published studies on nanoproducts are usually defined for the production of mass units. This study, found that using MWCNT-based concrete reduced the weight of the steel reinforcement by 47%. This reduction in steel outweighs the environmental impacts corresponding to used MWCNTs. The impact scores obtained are significantly lower for the MWCNT-based concrete. Therefore, the use of this material is recommended in Water management facilities, only on an environmental basis. Further investigation is recommended into the economic viability of this use. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Health, Wellbeing and Urban Design)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

22 pages, 967 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Developing a Sentiment Lexicon-Based Quality Performance Evaluation Model on Construction Projects in Korea

by Kiseok Lee, Taegeun Song, Yoonseok Shin and Wi Sung Yoo

Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2817; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162817 - 8 Aug 2025

The increasing frequency of structural failures on construction sites emphasizes the critical role of rigorous supervision in ensuring the quality of both construction processes and materials. Current regulatory frameworks mandate the production of detailed supervision reports to provide comprehensive evaluations of construction quality, [...] Read more.

The increasing frequency of structural failures on construction sites emphasizes the critical role of rigorous supervision in ensuring the quality of both construction processes and materials. Current regulatory frameworks mandate the production of detailed supervision reports to provide comprehensive evaluations of construction quality, material compliance, and site records. This study proposes a novel approach to harnessing unstructured reports for automated quality assessment. Employing text mining techniques, a sentiment lexicon specifically tailored for quality performance evaluation was developed. A corpus-based manual classification was conducted on 291 relevant words and 432 sentences extracted from the supervision reports, assigning sentiment labels of negative, neutral, and positive. This sentiment lexicon was then utilized as fundamental information for the Quality Performance Evaluation Model (QPEM). To validate the efficacy of the QPEM, it was applied to supervision reports from 30 construction sites adhering to legal standards. Furthermore, a Pearson correlation analysis was performed with the actual outcomes based on the legal requirements, including quality test failure rate, material inspection failure rate, and inspection management performance. By leveraging the wealth of unstructured data continuously generated throughout a project’s lifecycle, this model can enhance the timeliness of inspection and management processes, ultimately contributing to improved construction performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Construction Management, and Computers & Digitization)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

17 pages, 14467 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Geometric Optimization and Structural Analysis of Cable-Braced Gridshells on Freeform Surfaces

by Xinye Li and Qilin Zhang

Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2816; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162816 - 8 Aug 2025

In freeform surface grid structures, quadrilateral meshes offer high visual transparency and simple joint connections, but their structural stability is relatively limited. To enhance stability, designers often introduce additional structural elements along the diagonals of the quadrilateral mesh, forming double-layer quadrilateral grid systems [...] Read more.

In freeform surface grid structures, quadrilateral meshes offer high visual transparency and simple joint connections, but their structural stability is relatively limited. To enhance stability, designers often introduce additional structural elements along the diagonals of the quadrilateral mesh, forming double-layer quadrilateral grid systems such as cable-braced gridshells. However, current design methodologies do not support the simultaneous optimization of both layers. As a result, the two layers are often designed independently in practical applications, leading to complex joint detailing that compromises construction efficiency, architectural aesthetics, and overall structural performance. To address these challenges, this study presents a weighted multi-objective geometry optimization framework based on a Guided-Projection algorithm. The proposed method integrates half-edge data structure and multiple geometric and structural constraints, enabling the simultaneous optimization of quadrilateral mesh planarity (i.e., panels lying on flat planes) and the orthogonality (i.e., angles approaching 90°) of diagonal cable layouts. Through multiple case studies, the method demonstrates significant improvements in panel planarity and cable orthogonality. The results also highlight the algorithm’s rapid convergence and high computational efficiency. Finite element analysis further validates the structural benefits of the optimized configurations, including reduced peak axial forces in cables, more uniform cable force distribution, and enhanced overall stiffness and buckling resistance. In conclusion, the method improves structural stability, constructability, and design efficiency, offering a practical tool for optimizing freeform cable-braced gridshells. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

26 pages, 10835 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Detonation Dynamics and Damage Behavior of Segmented Tunnel Charges with Shaped Liners

by Zhuo Li, Xiaojun Zhang, Zhenye Zhu, Yongbo Wu, Hongbing Yu, Wenxue Gao and Ben Lv

Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2815; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162815 - 8 Aug 2025

To precisely control the tunnel smooth blasting effect, this study conducts both model experiments and numerical simulations to investigate the impact of shaped charge jet initiation on emulsion explosives and surrounding rock damage fractal characteristics under different ratios of the main-to-secondary charge lengths [...] Read more.

To precisely control the tunnel smooth blasting effect, this study conducts both model experiments and numerical simulations to investigate the impact of shaped charge jet initiation on emulsion explosives and surrounding rock damage fractal characteristics under different ratios of the main-to-secondary charge lengths (L₁/L₂). The study also includes field validation. The results indicate the following: (1) The Arbitrary Lagrangian–Eulerian (ALE) method can accurately reproduce the formation, motion, impact, initiation, and dynamic damage evolution of a shaped charge jet inside a blast hole, with a deviation of less than 6.4% compared to high-speed photography observations. (2) Under the working conditions in this study, when an axial aluminum energetic liner and two-stage air-segmented charge in the peripheral holes are used, the fractal dimension (D_f) initially increases from 1.57 to 1.66 and then decreases to 1.41 as the L₁/L₂ ratio increases. (3) Field test results demonstrate that, when using a two-segment explosive charge with a 20 cm gap between segments and an L₁/L₂ ratio of 2, the average over- or under-excavation is controlled within 7 cm, with the maximum deviation not exceeding 12 cm. The corresponding average fragment size (d₅₀) is minimized, resulting in an excellent smooth blasting effect and effectively controlling the fragmentation of the smooth blasting layer. The conclusions of this study provide valuable insights for the development of advanced shaped charge blasting techniques. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Dynamic Response of Civil Engineering Structures under Seismic Loads)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

18 pages, 2610 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Shear Strength of RC T-Beams Without Shear Reinforcement Based on Crack Sliding Model

by Penggang Tian, Yufei Han, Kai Wang, Jiajia Wang, Zhiheng Tian and Ergang Xiong

Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2814; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162814 - 8 Aug 2025

Considering the effect of the flange on the shear capacity of reinforced concrete (RC) beams without stirrups, a shear capacity calculation formula based on the crack sliding model is proposed for RC beams without stirrups in this paper. Test data of 444 rectangular [...] Read more.

Considering the effect of the flange on the shear capacity of reinforced concrete (RC) beams without stirrups, a shear capacity calculation formula based on the crack sliding model is proposed for RC beams without stirrups in this paper. Test data of 444 rectangular section beams and 172 T-beams were collected to verify this calculation theory, and the calculation results were compared with domestic and international design codes. The collected datasets were analyzed using five common machine learning models. The results show that the shear capacity calculation method proposed by the codes of each country is in good agreement with the test results. Compared to the calculation of the codes, the addressed calculation method in this study is more accurate and can effectively account for the contribution of the T-beam flange to the shear capacity. The machine learning models selected in this paper exhibit desirable accuracy on the test set, which demonstrates the applicability of the machine learning models in the calculation of shear capacity for reinforced concrete beams. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

More Articles...

Submit to Buildings Review for Buildings

Journal Menu

Journal Browser

► Journal Browser

Highly Accessed Articles

View More...

Latest Books

More Books and Reprints...

E-Mail Alert

News

7 August 2025
Meet Us at the 12^th Indoor Environment and Health Conference (IEHB 2025), 8–10 August 2025, Dalian, China

1 August 2025
Meet Us at the Architectural Institute of Japan Annual Meeting 2025, 9–12 September 2025, Fukuoka, Japan

31 July 2025
MDPI INSIGHTS: The CEO's Letter #25 - 8,000 Staff Worldwide, Korea Visit, 100,000 Preprints, Malaysia Roundtable, Canada Consortium Deal

More News & Announcements...

Topics

Propose a Topic

Topic in Energies, Sustainability, Buildings, Architecture

Decarbonising the Building Industry Topic Editors: Behzad Rismanchi, Tuan Ngo, Alireza Kashani, Aliakbar Gholampour, M. Reza Hosseini
Deadline: 1 September 2025

Topic in Applied Sciences, Buildings, Heritage, Materials, Sustainability

Sustainability in Buildings: New Trends in the Management of Construction and Demolition Waste, 2nd Volume Topic Editors: Carlos Morón Fernández, Daniel Ferrández Vega
Deadline: 30 September 2025

Topic in Buildings, CivilEng, Construction Materials, Materials, Solids

Novel Cementitious Materials Topic Editors: Peiyu Yan, Yao Luan, Chunsheng Zhou
Deadline: 31 October 2025

Topic in Atmosphere, Buildings, Climate, Environments, Sustainability, Earth

Climate, Health and Cities: Building Aspects for a Resilient Future Topic Editors: Ferdinando Salata, Virgilio Ciancio, Simona Mannucci
Deadline: 20 November 2025

More Topics

Conferences

Propose a Conference Collaboration

2–3 October 2025 The 11th World Sustainability Forum

1–3 October 2025 The 6th Luso-Brazilian Meeting on Degradation in Reinforced Concrete Structures (DEGRADA 2025)

1–2 November 2025 The International Symposium on Climate Adaptation and Low-Carbon Cities 2025

More Conferences...

Special Issues

Propose a Special Issue

Special Issue in Buildings

Advances in Indoor Environmental Quality (IEQ) Guest Editors: Giovanni Semprini, Aminhossein Jahanbin, Simone Secchi
Deadline: 15 August 2025

Special Issue in Buildings

Intelligent Multi-Criteria Decision-Making Methodologies in Building and Construction Management—2nd Edition Guest Editors: Seyyed Ahmad Edalatpanah, Jurgita Antucheviciene
Deadline: 15 August 2025

Special Issue in Buildings

UHPC Materials: Structural and Mechanical Analysis in Buildings Guest Editors: Shu Fang, Yang Zou, Xiaoqing Xu, Zhuangcheng Fang
Deadline: 16 August 2025

Special Issue in Buildings

Mechanical Properties of Advanced Metal Structures in Civil Infrastructure Guest Editors: Xiaowei Liao, Haohui Xin, Fangxin Hu, Zhe Xing, Nanting Yu
Deadline: 20 August 2025

More Special Issues

Topical Collections

Topical Collection in Buildings

Green and Sustainable Building Materials Collection Editors: João Gomes Ferreira, Ana Isabel Marques

Topical Collection in Buildings

Structural Analysis for Earthquake-Resistant Design of Buildings Collection Editors: Daniele Perrone, Emanuele Brunesi

Topical Collection in Buildings

The Methods, Tools and Techniques for the Preservation of Existing Structures Collection Editors: Mislav Stepinac, Tomislav Kišiček, Ivan Lukačević, Ivan Duvnjak

Topical Collection in Buildings

Buildings and Fire Safety Collection Editors: Marina Gravit, Olga Zybina

More Topical Collections

Back to TopTop