Digital Tools for Revealing and Reducing Carbon Footprint in Infrastructure, Building, and City Scopes
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methodology
- Basic information: it describes the information of each tool’s developing origin and status.
- CF analytical information: this attributes group indicates how each digital tool measures the CF’s environmental impact and the scopes of covered emissions. Specifically, the inclusions of embodied emissions and operational emissions were examined. In this study, the embodied emissions refer to the CF generated before the completion of the construction [14], such as the carbon emissions of producing the construction materials and the emissions of transporting the materials from the factories to construction sites by workers. Operational emissions refer to the CF generated during the operation and maintenance phase of the assets, such as carbon emissions to heat and ventilate the buildings, maintenance activities by workers, and end-of-life disposal of the buildings [14].
- Digitalisation information: this attributes group is about how the tool has been connected to the development of updated technology applications. One of the most important considerations for this attributes group was whether the tool has been potentially designed to adopt building information modelling (BIM), a widely accepted digital approach in the AEC/FM industry [16].
3. Results and Analysis
3.1. Review Results in Infrastructure, Building, and City Scopes, Respectively
3.1.1. CF Calculation Tools in the Infrastructure Scope
3.1.2. CF Calculation Tools in the Building Scope
3.1.3. CF Calculation Tools in the City Scope
3.2. Cross-Scope Analysis and Comparison of the Digital Tools
3.2.1. CF Analysis Strategy
3.2.2. Standards and Protocols
3.2.3. Rating Systems
3.2.4. Development Level of the Digital Tools in the Three Scopes
4. Discussions
4.1. The Trend of CF Digital Tools Development Scope
4.2. The Trend of Whole Life Cycle Carbon Analysis
4.3. The Trend of Digitalisation towards a Smarter and Intelligent City
5. Conclusions
- (1)
- There are mature and effective digital tools targeting CF analysis in infrastructure, building, and city scopes covering most of the analysis in the AEC/FM sector in general. However, the development level is uneven. Comparatively, the tool choices for building scope scenarios are greater than for infrastructure and city scopes.
- (2)
- The current CF analysis methods are swaying between embodied carbon emissions calculation and whole-life carbon calculation (i.e., LCA and WBLCA). As the carbon issue becomes more and more severe confronting the climate change challenge, a more accurate whole-life carbon assessment is the mainstream. Moreover, issues such as calculation inconsistency still exist to be addressed in the current assessment methodology.
- (3)
- The current digital tools have realised the automation of CF calculation, but the development level is far from “smart” or “intelligent”. The tools cannot be easily adapted and adopted to other digital approaches such as BIM or digital twins populating in the AEC/FM sector.
- (3)
- Future development trends are proposed for researchers and practitioners to discuss:
- (4)
- Advanced tools and approaches in digital forms targeting multiple stakeholders in the infrastructure and city scopes are welcomed to fill the current gap.
- (5)
- Accurate and consistent CF assessment methodologies and globalised standards and protocols should be developed in each scope, focusing on the whole-life cycle carbon assessment. Future digital tools should be implemented in actual scenarios to provide more empirical experiences and feedback.
- (6)
- The digitalisation of CF assessment in the AEC/FM sector should be developed towards a smarter and more intelligent city goal. Efforts can be taken from aspects of functionality, technology, information management, and organisation and operation.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- HM Government. Net Zero Strategy: Build Back Greener. 2022. Available online: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1033990/net-zero-strategy-beis.pdf (accessed on 4 May 2022).
- The White House. The Long-Term Strategy of the United States: Pathways to Net-Zero Greenhouse Gas Emissions by 2050. 2021. Available online: https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/US-Long-Term-Strategy.pdf (accessed on 4 May 2022).
- Kuwahara, R.; Kim, H.; Sato, H. Evaluation of Zero-Energy Building and Use of Renewable Energy in Renovated Buildings: A Case Study in Japan. Buildings 2022, 12, 561. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Saheb, Y. COP26: Sufficiency Should Be First. Buildings and Cities. 2021. Available online: https://www.buildingsandcities.org/insights/commentaries/cop26-sufficiency.html#:~:text=Avoiding%20the%20climate%20emergency%20requires,today’s%20environmental%20and%20societal%20challenges (accessed on 4 May 2022).
- Müller, D.B.; Liu, G.; Løvik, A.N.; Modaresi, R.; Pauliuk, S.; Steinhoff, F.S.; Brattebø, H. Carbon Emissions of Infrastructure Development. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2013, 47, 11739–11746. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- US EPA. Sector Performance Report; United States Environmental Protection Agency: Washington, DC, USA, 2008. Available online: https://archive.epa.gov/sectors/web/pdf/introbw.pdf (accessed on 4 May 2022).
- Liu, G.; Bangs, C.E.; Müller, D.B. Stock dynamics and emission pathways of the global aluminium cycle. Nat. Clim. Chang. 2012, 3, 338–342. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Biswas, W. Carbon footprint and embodied energy consumption assessment of building construction works in Western Australia. Int. J. Sustain. Built Environ. 2014, 3, 179–186. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Säynäjoki, A.; Heinonen, J.; Junnila, S. Carbon Footprint Assessment of a Residential Development Project. Int. J. Environ. Sci. Dev. 2011, 2, 116–123. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Collings, D. The Carbon Footprint of Bridges. Struct. Eng. Int. 2021, 1–6. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- ISO 14040:2006; Environmental Management–Life Cycle 596 Assessment–Principles and Framework. International Organization for Standardization: Geneva, Switzerland, 2006. Available online: https://www.iso.org/standard/37456.html (accessed on 20 April 2022).
- Weißenberger, M.; Jensch, W.; Lang, W. The convergence of life cycle assessment and nearly zero-energy buildings: The case of Germany. Energy Build. 2014, 76, 551–557. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- PAS 2080:2016; Carbon Management in Infrastructure. British Standards Institution: London, UK, 2016. Available online: https://www.bsigroup.com/en-GB/our-services/product-certification/product-certification-schemes/pas-2080-carbon-management-in-infrastructure-verification/ (accessed on 4 May 2022).
- Jackson, D.J.; Brander, M. The risk of burden shifting from embodied carbon calculation tools for the infrastructure sector. J. Clean. Prod. 2019, 223, 739–746. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- HM Treasury. Infrastructure Carbon Review; HM Treasury: London, UK, 2013. Available online: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/260710/infrastructure_carbon_review_251113.pdf (accessed on 25 May 2022).
- Feng, H.; Sadiq, R.; Hewage, K. Exploring the current challenges and emerging approaches in whole building life cycle assessment. Can. J. Civ. Eng. 2022, 49, 149–158. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chen, G.; Shan, Y.; Hu, Y.; Tong, K.; Wiedmann, T.; Ramaswami, A.; Guan, D.; Shi, L.; Wang, Y. Review on City-Level Carbon Accounting. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2019, 53, 5545–5558. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fenner, A.E.; Kibert, C.J.; Woo, J.; Morque, S.; Razkenari, M.; Hakim, H.; Lu, X. The carbon footprint of buildings: A review of methodologies and applications. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2018, 94, 1142–1152. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Akponeware, A.; Dawood, N.; Rodriguez-Trejo, S.; Dawood, H. An integrated empirical analysis of UK rail industry’s carbon assessment: An industry perspective. Case Stud. Transp. Policy 2021, 10, 315–330. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hao, Z.; Barecka, M.H.; Lapkin, A.A. Accelerating net zero from the perspective of optimizing a carbon capture and utilization system. Energy Environ. Sci. 2022, 15, 2139–2153. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mulrow, J.; Machaj, K.; Deanes, J.; Derrible, S. The state of carbon footprint calculators: An evaluation of calculator design and user interaction features. Sustain. Prod. Consum. 2018, 18, 33–40. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- RSSB. Rail Carbon Tool. 2021. Available online: https://www.rssb.co.uk/sustainability/rail-carbon-tool (accessed on 4 May 2022).
- TRL. asPECT. 2021. Available online: https://trl.co.uk/permanent-landing-pages/asphalt-pavement-embodied-carbon-tool-aspect/ (accessed on 4 May 2022).
- Wayman, M.; Schiavi-Mellor, I.; Cordell, B. Protocol for the Calculation of Whole Life Cycle Greenhouse Gas Emissions Generated by Asphalt: Part of the Asphalt Pavement Embodied Carbon Tool (asPECT). 2011. Available online: https://www.trl.co.uk/Uploads/TRL/Documents/PPR575.pdf (accessed on 4 May 2022).
- One Click LCA. Infrastructure LCA. 2022. Available online: https://www.oneclicklca.com/construction/infrastructure-life-cycle-assessment/ (accessed on 4 May 2022).
- National Highways, National Highways Carbon Tool Guidance. 2021. Available online: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/899360/Highways_England_Carbon_Tool_Guidance_Document_v2.3.pdf (accessed on 4 May 2022).
- Smith, D.A.; Spencer, P.; Dolling, C.; Hendy, C. Carbon calculator design tool for bridges. Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng. Bridge Eng. 2015, 168, 232–244. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Melanta, S.; Miller-Hooks, E.; Avetisyan, H.G. Carbon Footprint Estimation Tool for Transportation Construction Projects. J. Constr. Eng. Manag. 2013, 139, 547–555. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Misra, A.; Panchabikesan, K.; Gowrishankar, S.K.; Ayyasamy, E.; Ramalingam, V. GHG emission accounting and mitigation strategies to reduce the carbon footprint in conventional port activities—A case of the Port of Chennai. Carbon Manag. 2017, 8, 45–56. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Postorino, M.N.; Mantecchini, L. A transport carbon footprint methodology to assess airport carbon emissions. J. Air Transp. Manag. 2014, 37, 76–86. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sihabuddin, S.; Ariaratnam, S.T. Quantification of Carbon Footprint on Underground Utility Projects. In Proceedings of the Construction Research Congress 2009: Building a Sustainable Future, Seattle, WA, USA, 5–7 April 2009. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wu, L.; Mao, X.; Zeng, A. Carbon footprint accounting in support of city water supply infrastructure siting decision making: A case study in Ningbo, China. J. Clean. Prod. 2015, 103, 737–746. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Choi, J.-H. Strategy for reducing carbon dioxide emissions from maintenance and rehabilitation of highway pavement. J. Clean. Prod. 2018, 209, 88–100. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- ASMI. Athena LCA Software Tools Have Been Helping North American Sustainable Designers Since 2002. Available online: http://www.athenasmi.org/our-software-data/overview/ (accessed on 4 May 2022).
- eTool. About eToolLCD. Available online: https://etoolglobal.com/about-etoollcd/ (accessed on 4 May 2022).
- WoodWorks Design a Wood Building? Case Study: Inspiration through Innovation at UMass Amherst, an Exposed Mass Timber Structure is a Teaching Tool. Available online: http://www.woodworks.org (accessed on 17 December 2021).
- StoneSpecialist. Carbon Calculator. Available online: https://stonespecialist.com/ (accessed on 4 May 2022).
- ThorntonTomasetti. Embodied Carbon and Energy Efficiency Tool. Available online: http://core.thorntontomasetti.com/embodied-carbon-efficiency-tool/ (accessed on 4 May 2022).
- Solís-Guzmán, J.; Rivero-Camacho, C.; Alba-Rodríguez, D.; Martínez-Rocamora, A. Carbon Footprint Estimation Tool for Residential Buildings for Non-Specialized Users: OERCO2 Project. Sustainability 2018, 10, 1359. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- BuildingTransparency. EC3 Resources. 2021. Available online: https://www.buildingtransparency.org/ec3-resources/ (accessed on 4 May 2022).
- OneClickLCA. Get Reliable Whole Building Life-Cycle Assessments, Instantly. 2021. Available online: https://www.oneclicklca.com/construction/life-cycle-assessment-software/ (accessed on 4 May 2022).
- Tally. Know Your Impact. 2021. Available online: https://choosetally.com/ (accessed on 4 May 2022).
- Eckerson, W.W. Three tier client/server architecture: Achieving scalability, performance and efficiency in client server applications. Open Inf. Syst. 1995, 10, 10025457864. [Google Scholar]
- BRE. IMPACT. 2021. Available online: https://bregroup.com/products/impact/features/?cn-reloaded=1&cn-reloaded=1 (accessed on 4 May 2022).
- E2CO2Cero. Qué es E2CO2Cero? 2018. Available online: http://online.e2co2cero.com/ (accessed on 4 May 2022).
- Wood, E. The Structural Carbon Tool Version 2. 2022. Available online: https://www.istructe.org/resources/guidance/the-structural-carbon-tool/ (accessed on 4 May 2022).
- BuildCarbonNeutral. Estimate the Embodied CO2 of a Whole Construction Project. 2007. Available online: http://www.buildcarbonneutral.org/ (accessed on 4 May 2022).
- Lu, C.-M.; Chen, J.-Y.; Pan, C.-A.; Jeng, T. A BIM Tool for Carbon Footprint Assessment of Building Design. In Proceedings of the 20th International Conference of the Association for Computer-Aided Architectural Design Research in Asia, Hong Kong SAR, China, 20–22 May 2015. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- CleanMetrics. BuildingScope. 2011. Available online: https://www.cleanmetrics.com/html/buildingscope.htm (accessed on 4 May 2022).
- Ammouri, A.H.; Srour, I.; Hamade, R. Carbon Footprint Calculator for Construction Projects (CFCCP). In Advances in Sustainable Manufacturing; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2011; pp. 327–331. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- EnvironmentAgency. Carbon Planning Tool. 2016 [15 December 2021]. Available online: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/571707/LIT_7067.pdf (accessed on 4 May 2022).
- Lombardi, M.; Laiola, E.; Tricase, C.; Rana, R. Assessing the urban carbon footprint: An overview. Environ. Impact Assess. Rev. 2017, 66, 43–52. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- PAS 2070:2013+A1:2014; Specification for the Assessment of Greenhouse Gas Emissions of a City. Direct Plus Supply Chain and Consumption-Based Methodologies. British Standards Institution: London, UK, 2014. Available online: https://cdn.locomotive.works/sites/5ab410c8a2f42204838f797e/content_entry5ae2f905a2f4220ae645f026/5af8367114ad660b6525395a/files/London_-_PAS2070_Methodology.pdf?1615815345 (accessed on 4 May 2022).
- C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group. ICLEI—Local Governments for Sustainability, World Resources Institute (WRI). The Global Protocol for Community-Scale Greenhouse Gas Emission Inventories (GPC). 2014. Available online: https://www.c40knowledgehub.org/s/article/The-Global-Protocol-for-Community-Scale-Greenhouse-Gas-Emission-Inventories-GPC?language=en_US (accessed on 4 May 2022).
- Andrade, J.C.S.; Dameno, A.; Pérez, J.; Almeida, J.M.D.A.; Lumbreras, J. Implementing city-level carbon accounting: A comparison between Madrid and London. J. Clean. Prod. 2018, 172, 795–804. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Li, Y.; Du, W.; Huisingh, D. Challenges in developing an inventory of greenhouse gas emissions of Chinese cities: A case study of Beijing. J. Clean. Prod. 2017, 161, 1051–1063. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wiedmann, T.O.; Chen, G.; Barrett, J. The Concept of City Carbon Maps: A Case Study of Melbourne, Australia. J. Ind. Ecol. 2015, 20, 676–691. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- i-Tree. Welcome to the i-Tree Planting Calculator! 2021 [15 December 2021]. Available online: https://planting.itreetools.org/ (accessed on 4 May 2022).
- Climatepositivedesign. Design for Our Future. 2021. Available online: https://climatepositivedesign.com/ (accessed on 4 May 2022).
- iPoint. Umberto. 2021. Available online: https://www.ifu.com/umberto/ (accessed on 4 May 2022).
- CarbonStop. Carbon Management Software. 2021. Available online: http://en.carbonstop.net/ (accessed on 4 May 2022).
- Network Rail. Capital Carbon; Network Rail: London, UK, 2019; Available online: https://safety.networkrail.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/capital-carbon-ESD07-v.11.pdf (accessed on 4 May 2022).
- Atmaca, A.; Atmaca, N. Life cycle energy (LCEA) and carbon dioxide emissions (LCCO2A) assessment of two residential buildings in Gaziantep, Turkey. Energy Build 2015, 102, 417–431. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ormazabal, M.; Jaca, C.; Puga-Leal, R. Analysis and Comparison of Life Cycle Assessment and Carbon Footprint Software. In Proceedings of the Eighth International Conference on Management Science and Engineering Management, Lisbon, Portugal, 25–27 July 2014; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2014; pp. 1521–1530. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jackson, D.J.; Kaesehage, K. Addressing the challenges of integrating carbon calculation tools in the construction industry. Bus. Strat. Environ. 2020, 29, 2973–2983. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- PAS 2050-2:2012; Assessment of Life Cycle Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Horticultural Products-Supplementary Requirements for the Cradle to Gate Stages of GHG Assessments of Horticultural Products Undertaken in Accordance with PAS 2050. British Standards Institution: London, UK, 2012. Available online: https://shop.bsigroup.com/products/assessment-of-life-cycle-greenhouse-gas-emissions-from-horticultural-products-supplementary-requirements-for-the-cradle-to-gate-stages-of-ghg-assessments-of-horticultural-products-undertaken-in-accordance-with-pas-2050/standard (accessed on 4 May 2022).
- PAS 2060:2014; Specification for the Demonstration of Carbon Neutrality. British Standards Institution: London, UK, 2014. Available online: https://shop.bsigroup.com/products/specification-for-the-demonstration-of-carbon-neutrality-1/standard (accessed on 4 May 2022).
- ISO 14044:2006; Environmental Management-Life Cycle Assessment-Requirements and Guidelines. International Organization for Standardization: London, UK, 2006. Available online: https://www.iso.org/standard/38498.html (accessed on 20 April 2022).
- ISO 14067:2018; Greenhouse Gases-Carbon Footprint of Products-Requirements and Guidelines for Quantification. International Organization for Standardization: London, UK, 2018. Available online: https://www.iso.org/standard/71206.html (accessed on 20 April 2022).
- ISO 14025:2006; Environmental Labels and Declarations-Type III Environmental Declarations-Principles and Procedures. International Organization for Standardization: London, UK, 2006. Available online: https://www.iso.org/standard/38131.html (accessed on 20 April 2022).
- ISO 21929-1:2011; Sustainability in Building Construction—Sustainability Indicators—Part 1: Framework for the Development of Indicators and a Core Set of Indicators for Buildings. International Organization for Standardization: London, UK, 2011. Available online: https://www.iso.org/standard/46599.html (accessed on 20 April 2022).
- ISO 21930:2017; Sustainability in Buildings and Civil Engineering Works-Core Rules for Environmental Product Declarations of Construction Products and Services. International Organization for Standardization: London, UK, 2017. Available online: https://www.iso.org/standard/61694.html (accessed on 20 April 2022).
- ISO 21931-2:2019; Sustainability in Buildings and civil Engineering Works-Framework for Methods of Assessment of the Environmental, Social and Economic Performance of Construction Works as a Basis for Sustainability Assessment-Part 2: Civil Engineering Works. International Organization for Standardization: London, UK, 2019. Available online: https://www.iso.org/standard/61696.html (accessed on 20 April 2022).
- BS EN 15978:2011; Sustainability of Construction Works. Assessment of Environmental Performance of Buildings. Calculation Method. The British Standards European Norm. Available online: https://knowledge.bsigroup.com/products/sustainability-of-construction-works-assessment-of-environmental-performance-of-buildings-calculation-method/standard (accessed on 20 April 2022).
- EN 15603: 2008; Energy Performance of Buildings-Overall Energy Use and Definition of Energy Ratings. Comite Europeen de Normalisation: Brussels, Belgium, 2008. Available online: https://shop.standards.ie/en-ie/standards/en-15603-2008-326835_saig_cen_cen_752982/ (accessed on 20 April 2022).
- BS EN 15804:2012+A2:2019; Sustainability of Construction Works-Environmental Product Declarations-Core Rules for the Product Category of Construction Products. The British Standards Institution: London, UK, 2019. Available online: https://knowledge.bsigroup.com/products/sustainability-of-construction-works-environmental-product-declarations-core-rules-for-the-product-category-of-construction-products-1/standard/details (accessed on 20 April 2022).
- BS EN 15942:2021; Sustainability of Construction Works. Environmental Product Declarations. Communication Format Business-to-Business. The British Standards Institution: London, UK, 2021. [CrossRef]
- GHGProtocol. We Set the Standards to Measure and Manage Emissions. Greenhouse Gas Protocol. Available online: https://ghgprotocol.org (accessed on 14 December 2019).
- BIPCC. 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories. 2006. Available online: https://www.ipcc.ch/report/2006-ipcc-guidelines-for-national-greenhouse-gas-inventories/ (accessed on 4 May 2022).
- USGBC. LEED Rating System. 2022. Available online: https://www.usgbc.org/leed (accessed on 4 May 2022).
- BRE. What Is BREEAM? 2022. Available online: https://www.breeam.com/ (accessed on 27 December 2021).
- BRE. Achieve Sustainable Infrastructure with CEEQUAL. 2022. Available online: https://bregroup.com/products/ceequal/ (accessed on 20 April 2022).
- Harvard University Graduate School of Design. Envision® Rating System. 2021. Available online: https://research.gsd.harvard.edu/zofnass/menu/envision/ (accessed on 4 May 2022).
- HQE. Discover and Join HQE™ 2016. Available online: https://www.behqe.com/ (accessed on 4 May 2022).
- GBCA. What Is Green Star? 2022. Available online: https://new.gbca.org.au/green-star/exploring-green-star/ (accessed on 4 May 2022).
- GBIG. Green Building Evaluation Label (China Three Star). 2014. Available online: http://www.gbig.org/collections/14970 (accessed on 4 May 2022).
- Kuusinen, K.; Mikkonen, T.; Pakarinen, S. Agile User Experience Development in a Large Software Organization: Good Expertise but Limited Impact. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Human-Centred Software Engineering, Toulouse, France, 29–31 October 2012; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2012; pp. 94–111. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Santos, R.; Costa, A.A.; Silvestre, J.D.; Vandenbergh, T.; Pyl, L. BIM-based life cycle assessment and life cycle costing of an office building in Western Europe. Build. Environ. 2019, 169, 106568. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhang, D.; Zhang, J.; Guo, J.; Xiong, H. A Semantic and Social Approach for Real-Time Green Building Rating in BIM-Based Design. Sustainability 2019, 11, 3973. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Henderson, P.; Hu, J.; Romoff, J.; Brunskill, E.; Jurafsky, D.; Pineau, J. Towards the systematic reporting of the energy and carbon footprints of machine learning. J. Mach. Learn. Res. 2020, 21, 1–43. [Google Scholar]
- Liu, K.-H.; Chang, S.-F.; Huang, W.-H.; Lu, I.-C. The Framework of the Integration of Carbon Footprint and Blockchain: Using Blockchain as a Carbon Emission Management Tool. In Technologies and Eco-Innovation towards Sustainability I; Springer: Singapore, 2019; pp. 15–22. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Type | Attributes | Contents |
---|---|---|
Type 1: Basic Information | Name | The name of the developed digital tool for CF calculation |
Affiliation | The organisations or companies that develop and ooperatethe tool | |
Development Region | The region from which the tool originates | |
Specified Industry | More specified fields that the tool targets | |
Operation Type | Whether the tool is commercial (charged)/non-profit (free)/academic (developed and free for academic purposes) | |
Current Availability | Whether the tool is still available regardless of the operation type | |
Type 2: CF Analytical Information | Standard Coverage | The CF calculation standards that the tool complies |
Analysis Strategy | The CF calculation methods from the life cycle analysis perspectives | |
Embodied Emissions Included | Whether the analysis strategy includes embodied emissions | |
Operational Emissions Included | Whether the analysis strategy includes operational emissions | |
Type 3: Digitalisation Information | BIM adaptation | Whether the tool “talks” to the BIM-related software (e.g., calculate using BIM files or be the add-in in the BIM software) |
Release Form | Whether the tool is released in spreadsheet-based/web-based (cloud-based)/standalone/add-in form | |
Result Presentation | How the calculation results are presented (e.g., simplified numbers or reports with diagrams) | |
Digital Environment | Whether the tool provides the 3D digital environment of the calculated built environment |
Name | Basic Information | CF Analytical Information | Digitalisation Information | Ref. | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Affiliation | Region | SpecifiedIndustry | Operation Type | Current Availability | Standard Coverage | Analysis Strategy | Embodied Emissions | Operational Emissions | BIM Adaptation | Release Form | Result Presentation Form | Digital Environment | ||
Rail Carbon Tool (RCT) | RSSB (Powered with Atkins) | UK | Railway | Commercial/non-profit | Yes | PAS 2080 GHG Protocol Scope 1, 2, 3 | Whole-life Carbon | Yes | Yes | N/A | Web-based | Summarised report with 2D diagrams | Not available | [22] |
The Highways Agency Carbon Calculator for Construction | National Highway | UK | Highway | Commercial/non-profit | Yes | PAS 2050 GHG Protocol Scope 1, 2, 3 | Construction phase analysis | Yes | No | No | Spreadsheet-based | Summarised report with 2D diagrams | Not available | [26] |
asPECT | TRL | UK | Asphalt used on highways | Commercial/non-profit | Yes | PAS 2050 | Construction phase analysis | Yes | No | No | Standalone | Summarised Report in numbers | Not available | [23] |
Infrastructure LCA | One Click LCA | US | Infrastructure in general | Commercial | Yes | EN 17472:2021, PAS 2080 | LCA | Yes | Yes | Yes | Web-based/Add-in | Summarised report with 2D diagrams | Yes | [25] |
Carbon calculator design tool for bridges | British Constructional Steelwork Association Ltd. (BCSA), Tata Steel and Atkin | UK | Steel-concrete composite typical bridge | Academic | Not available | ISO 14040 | LCA | Yes | Yes | No | Standalone | Summarised report with 2D diagrams | Not available | [27] |
Carbon Footprint Estimation Tool (CFET) | Environmental Inc.; Unv. Of Maryland | US/Canada | Railway | Academic | No | IPCC Guidelines GHG reduction policies | Construction phase analysis | Yes | No | N/A | Standalone | Summarised results in numbers | Not available | [28] |
Name | Basic Information | CF Analytical Information | Digitalisation Information | Ref. | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Affiliation | Region | Specified Industry | Operation Type | Current Availability | Standard Coverage | Analysis Strategy | Embodied Emissions | Operational Emissions | BIM Adaptation | Release Form | Result Presentation Form | Digital Environment | ||
Athena Impact Estimator for Buildings | ATHENA Sustainable Material Institute | North America | Building | Commercial/non-profit | Yes | ISO 14040 and 14044 series | WBLCA | Yes | Yes | No | Standalone | Summarised report with 2D diagrams | No | [34] |
Athena EcoCalculator for Assemblies | ATHENA Sustainable Material Institute | North America | Building | Commercial/non-profit | Yes (but no longer maintained) | ISO 14040 and 14044 series | LCA | Yes | Yes | No | Spreadsheet-based | Not Available | No | [34] |
eToolLCD | eTool | UK | Building, infrastructure | Commercial | Yes | EN 15978 and ISO 14044 | LCA | Yes | Yes | Yes | Web-based | Summarised report with 2D diagrams | Yes | [35] |
Carbon Calculator | Forest Pennant (Natural Stone Specialist) | UK | Building (stonework) | Commercial/non-profit | No | PAS 2050 | Construction phase analysis | Yes | No | No | Spreadsheet-based | Not Available | No | [37] |
Embodied Carbon and Energy Efficiency Tool | Thornton Tomasetti | UK | Building | Academic | No (2014) | Inventory of Carbon & Energy (ICE) | N/A | Yes | No | N/A | Rhino | Visualised in 3D, (parameter design) | Yes | [38] |
OERCO2 | Erasmus+ | EU | Building | Academic | Yes | IPCC 100a methodology | LCA | Yes | No | Not now | Web-based | Summarised Report in numbers | No | [39] |
WoodWorks Carbon Calculators | WoodWork | US | Wood building | Commercial | Yes | National Design Specification® (NDS®) for Wood Construction | Construction phase analysis | Yes | No | No (only wood elements in .rvt) | Not Available | Not Available | Not Available | [40] |
One-Click LCA | One Click LCA | Global | Building | Commercial | Yes | EN 15978, EN 15804, EN 15942, ISO 21931-1, ISO 21929-1, ISO 21930, | WBLCA | Yes | Yes | Yes | Add-in/Standalone | Summarised report with 2D diagrams | Yes | [41] |
Tally | Tally (stewarded by Building Transparency) | US | Building | Commercial | Yes | EN 15643, EN 15978, ISO 14040 and 14044 | WBLCA | Yes | Yes | Yes | Add-in | Summarised report with 2D diagrams | Yes | [42] |
Embodied Carbon in Construction Calculator (EC3) | Building Transparency | US | Building materials | Commercial/non-profit | Yes | Sorting and visualization of EPDs | A comprehensive product database | Yes | No | Has API | Web-based | Summarised report with 2D diagrams | No | [43] |
IMPACT | BRE | UK | Building | Commercial | Yes | EN 15804 | LCA | Yes | No | Yes | Web-based/Add-in | Summarised report with 2D diagrams | Yes | [44] |
e2CO2Cero | Basque Government | Spain | Building | Commercial | Yes | ISO14040: 2006. ISO14044: 2006. ISO 14025: 2006 | LCA | Yes | Yes | No | Web-based | Summarised report with 2D diagrams | No | [45] |
The Structural Carbon Tool | The Institute of Structural Engineers | UK | Building | Commercial/non-profit | Yes | BS EN 15978, BS EN 15804 | LCA | Yes | No | No | Spreadsheet-based | Summarised report with 2D diagrams | No | [46] |
Build Carbon Neutral | University of Texas at Austin, University of Washington | US | Building | Academic | Yes | Inventory of Carbon & Energy (ICE) | Construction phase analysis | Yes | No | No | Web-based | Summarised Report in numbers | No | [47] |
a BIM Tool | National Cheng Kung University, Taoyuan Innovation Institute of Technology | China (Taiwan) | Building | Academic | No | BIM-BCF (building carbon footprint) evaluation | Building life cycle | Yes | Yes | Yes | Add-in | Not Available | Yes | [48] |
BuildingScope™ | Clean Metrics 2.0 | US | Building | Commercial | No (2011) | ISO 14040 series, PAS 2050, GHG Protocol | LCA | Yes | No | No | Web-based | Summarised report with 2D diagrams | No | [49] |
CFCCP | American University of Beirut, Lebanon | Lebanon | Building | Academic | No (2011) | Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) | Construction phase analysis | Yes | No | No | Standalone | Summarised report with 2D diagrams | No | [50] |
Environment Agency Carbon Calculator | Energy Agency | UK | Building | Not Available | Not Available | Not Available | Construction phase analysis | Yes | No | No | Spreadsheet-based | Not Available | No | [51] |
Standard Institution | Standard Name | Introduction | Launched/ Updated | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
British Standard Institute (BSI) | PAS 2050 | Specification for the assessment of the life cycle GHG emissions of goods and services | 2011 | [66] |
PAS 2060 | Specification for the demonstration of carbon neutrality | 2010 | [67] | |
PAS 2070 | Specification for the assessment of GHG emissions of a city, direct plus supply chain and consumption-based methodologies | 2014 | [53] | |
PAS 2080 | Carbon management in infrastructure, a global standard for managing infrastructure carbon, be authorised to meet World Trade Organization requirements | 2016 | [13] | |
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) | ISO 14040 | Environmental management, life cycle assessment, principles and framework | 2006 | [11] |
ISO 14044 | Environmental management, life cycle assessment, requirements and guidelines | 2006 | [68] | |
ISO 14067 | GHG—carbon footprint of products—requirements and guidelines for quantification | 2018 | [69] | |
ISO 14025 | Environmental labels and declarations, type III environmental declarations. Principles and procedures | 2006 | [70] | |
ISO 21929 | Sustainability in building construction—sustainability indicators—part 1: framework for the development of indicators and a core set of indicators for buildings | 2011 | [71] | |
ISO 21930 | Sustainability in buildings and civil engineering works—core rules for environmental product declarations of construction products and services | 2017 | [72] | |
ISO 21931 | Sustainability in building construction—framework for methods of assessment of the environmental performance of construction works—part 1: buildings | 2019 | [73] | |
BS EN 15978 | Sustainability of construction works—assessment of the environmental performance of buildings—calculation method | 2012 | [74] | |
CEN EN 15603 | Energy performance of buildings, overall energy use and definition of energy ratings | 2008 | [75] | |
CEN EN 15804 | As the EPD standard for the sustainability of construction works and services, describes the technical performance of a construction product, provides data on a set of indicators for each of the different life cycle stages of the product | 2012 | [76] | |
BS EN 15942 | for business-to-business communication to ensure a common understanding through consistent communication of information for sustainability of construction works | 2021 | [77] | |
Greenhouse Gas (GHG) | GHG Protocol | Establishes comprehensive global standardised frameworks to measure and manage GHG emissions from private and public sector operations, value chains, and mitigation actions | 2015 | [78] |
IPCC | IPCC Guidelines | IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories | 2006 | [79] |
WRI | GPC | The Global Protocol for Community-Scale Greenhouse Gas Emission Inventories | 2014 | [54] |
Name | Affiliation | Content | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|
LEED | U.S. Green Building Council | Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design is a green building certification program used worldwide | [80] |
BREEAM | BRE | Sustainability assessment method for masterplanning projects, infrastructure, and buildings | [80,81] |
CEEQUAL | BRE | The international evidence-based sustainability assessment, rating, and awards scheme for civil engineering, infrastructure, landscaping, and works in public spaces | [82] |
Envision | Harvard University | The product of a joint collaboration between the Zofnass Program for Sustainable Infrastructure at the Harvard University Graduate School of Design and the Institute for Sustainable Infrastructure | [83] |
HQE | GBC Alliance HQE (France), Certivea (Global) | The French certification awarded to building construction and management as well as urban planning projects | [84] |
Greenstar | Green Building Council Australia | An internationally recognised Australian sustainability rating and certification system for fitouts, buildings, homes, and communities | [85] |
China Green Building Label (China Three Star) | Research Center of Environment Control and System Optimization | A green building certification program that evaluates projects based on six categories: land, energy, water, resource/material efficiency, indoor environmental quality, and operational management | [86] |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Yan, J.; Lu, Q.; Tang, J.; Chen, L.; Hong, J.; Broyd, T. Digital Tools for Revealing and Reducing Carbon Footprint in Infrastructure, Building, and City Scopes. Buildings 2022, 12, 1097. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings12081097
Yan J, Lu Q, Tang J, Chen L, Hong J, Broyd T. Digital Tools for Revealing and Reducing Carbon Footprint in Infrastructure, Building, and City Scopes. Buildings. 2022; 12(8):1097. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings12081097
Chicago/Turabian StyleYan, Jiayi, Qiuchen Lu, Junqing Tang, Long Chen, Jingke Hong, and Tim Broyd. 2022. "Digital Tools for Revealing and Reducing Carbon Footprint in Infrastructure, Building, and City Scopes" Buildings 12, no. 8: 1097. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings12081097