Low-Carbon Self-Healing Concrete: State-of-the-Art, Challenges and Opportunities
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Approaches of Self-Healing
2.1. Autogenous Self-Healing
- Curing conditions: Water curing is recommended to facilitate precipitation of healing products.
- Crack width: Healable width mostly limited to 200 µm.
- Water–cement ratio: Higher cement to water ratio has more unhydrated cement particles available for further hydration.
- Concrete age: Where possible, it is better to induce cracking at early ages.
- Internal stress: Prestressing at an early age to increase recovery of mechanical properties.
2.2. Autonomous Self-Healing
3. SHC Structural Engineering Performance
3.1. Mechanical Properties
3.2. Durability Properties
4. SHC Market Feasibility
5. Future Perspective
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Method | Recommendation | Limitation |
---|---|---|
Intrinsic | High cement content to increase amount of unhydrated cement for further hydration. | Healing mostly limited to early-age crack formation and hydration phases. Healing mostly limited to crack widths up to 200 μm [13]. |
Mineral admixture | Moderate SCM replacement by cement binder for sufficient availability of carbon hydroxide. Wet exposure. | Continued water exposure is required due to low permeability. Not repeatable to exhaustive mineral and cement supply and reactivity. Poor early-age mechanical properties due to delayed hydration. |
Crystalline admixture | High cement content. Up to 4.5% by weight of cement. Wet exposure [14,15]. | Slow healing pace [16]. Healing mostly limited to crack widths up to 300 μm [17]. |
Method | Recommendation | Limitation |
---|---|---|
Encapsulation | Low microcapsule content and size to mimic aggregate bonding. Customable brittleness capsule (elastic when hydrated and brittle dried). Uniform dispersion of capsules for distributed healing. Placing capsules in molds during casting to avoid rupture during mixing [32]. | Difficulty establishing upscaling techniques for industrial use. |
Vascular flow | Homogenous distribution of vessels. | Impractical due to manual and strategic installation. |
Healing System | Concrete | Nutrient | Curing | Mechanical Properties 7 Days 28 Days 56 Days | Ref. | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Compressive Strength | Split Tensile Strength | Flexural Strength | |||||
Crystalline admixture (0.8% wt. cement) | CEM II 32.5N | - | Water | ↑ 18% | - | - | [33] |
Crystalline admixture (0.8% wt. cement) | CEM II 42.5 R | - | Water | ↑ 12% | - | - | [34] |
1% wt. cement 500 μm Arabic shell of liquid sodium silicate 1% wt. cement 130 μm poly-urea of solid sodium silicate | OPC | - | Water | - ↓ 4% ↓ 9% - ↑ 7% ↓ 11% | - - - | - - - | [35] |
B. Subtilis (105 cells/mL wt.) | OPC-43 | Veg broth | Water | ↑ 32% | ↑ 14% | ↑ 29% | [28] |
B. Subtilis (105 μBC) | OPC | 0.5% calcium lactate | Water | ↑ 19% ↑ 24% ↑ 32% | - ↑ 25% ↑ 26% | - - - | [29] |
B. Subtilis (105 μBC) | OPC and basalt fiber | 0.5% calcium lactate | Water | ↑ 18% ↑ 17% ↑ 15% | - ↑ 16% ↑ 17% | - - - | [30] |
Sporosarcina pasteurii (107 μBC) | OPC | calcium nitrate-urea | Water | ↑ 44% | ↑ 36% | - | [36] |
SHC | Test | Laboratory Specimen | Field Application | Findings Laboratory Field | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Direct addition of Mixed Ureolytic Culture and anaerobic granular bacteria in CEM III/B 42.5 N | Capillary water absorption Water permeability | RC prism | RC roof slab | Wet–dry cycles ideal for visual crack closure. Negligible water absorption. Regain of liquid tightness. Roof slab developed condensation drops deemed favourable for self-healing activity. No cracking was observed; hence not tested. Direct addition not recommended due to further mixing requirement producing increased air content. | [50] |
Lightweight aggregate containing alkali-resistant bacterial healing agent and natural fibers | Flexural strength testing Compressive strength | - | Linings for irrigation canals | 15.4% compressive strength increase in SHC sample. Crack sealing after 6 months of cracking and curing. No cracking observed; hence not tested. | [51] |
Microcapsule-based epoxy resin with OPC, GGBS, FA, and expansive agent | Laboratory: Compressive strength Rapid chloride migration test Field: Strain monitoring sensor | Cube | Precast concrete slab embedded structure for tunnel application | Microcapsules reduced density and uniformity of concrete, reducing compressive strength. Loss of 20% in compressive strength after crack healing. Improved impermeability. No significant fluctuations in monitored strain. | [52] |
FA, GGBS, CEM I 42.5 Laboratory: Powder-based healing agent Field: Capsule-based microbial concrete | Laboratory: Workability Compressive strength Field Strain and temperature monitoring Ultrasonic testing | - | Underground metro structure | Negligible workability influence Decreased density in microbial concrete. Slightly lower compressive strength than normal concrete at 28 d. Improved impermeability after crack repair. Equivalent self-healing of cracks was observed in both normal and microbial SHC. Large strain measured on one wall caused 2 vertical cracks. The cracks were sealed after 41 d and 60 d; however, large amounts of healing product seemed to leak externally. Increased temperature monitored in early ages, likely indicating accelerated hydration, possibly due to capsule rupture. Waveform distorted with cracking and regained uniformity upon healing. Three cracks appeared and the best healing methods reported in order included: (1) Wet burlap with nutrients (2) Wet burlap with water (3) Water spraying | [39] |
RC with epoxy-coated 10% wt. microencapsulated tung oil | Accelerated corrosion test Pullout test Compressive strength | Reinforced mortar cylinder Mortar cylinder Mortar cube | - | 83% of SHC samples were free of corrosion. Bond stress comparable to conventional concrete with sustained integrity of interfacial bonding. SHC compressive strength was higher than standard concrete. | [53] |
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Albuhairi, D.; Di Sarno, L. Low-Carbon Self-Healing Concrete: State-of-the-Art, Challenges and Opportunities. Buildings 2022, 12, 1196. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings12081196
Albuhairi D, Di Sarno L. Low-Carbon Self-Healing Concrete: State-of-the-Art, Challenges and Opportunities. Buildings. 2022; 12(8):1196. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings12081196
Chicago/Turabian StyleAlbuhairi, Danah, and Luigi Di Sarno. 2022. "Low-Carbon Self-Healing Concrete: State-of-the-Art, Challenges and Opportunities" Buildings 12, no. 8: 1196. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings12081196