Energy-Efficient Retrofitting under Incomplete Information: A Data-Driven Approach and Empirical Study of Sweden
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Literature Review
2.1. Current Retrofitting Estimation Methods
2.2. Data-Driven Approach and Application for Building Retrofitting
3. Proposed Approach
3.1. Performance Modelling Module
3.1.1. Data Cleaning
3.1.2. Performance Modelling
3.2. Data Imputation Module
4. Empirical Study
4.1. Empirical Information
4.2. Method Application and Validation
4.2.1. Data-Cleaning Process
4.2.2. Performance Modelling Process and Validation
4.2.3. Data Imputation Process and Validation
5. Application Results and Method Discussion
5.1. Multi-Scale Application
5.2. Method Discussion
5.2.1. Different Method Setting
5.2.2. Previous Study Comparison
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
BPDs | Building performance datasets |
BPS | Building performance simulation |
BRBNN | Bayesian regularization backpropagation neural network |
EPC | Energy performance certificate |
FCM | Fuzzy C-means clustering |
IF | Isolation forest |
MI | Mean imputation |
MPI | Mean prediction interval |
MSE | Mean square error |
MSPE | Mean squared prediction error |
PCA | Principal component analysis |
PICP | Prediction interval coverage probability |
PIs | prediction intervals |
PMDI | Performance modelling with data imputation |
R2 | Coefficient of determination |
RM | Retrofitting measure |
RMSE | Root mean square error |
SI | Statistics imputation |
TSR | Trimmed scores regression |
Appendix A
Item of Samples (#) | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
Province | Norrbottens | Uppsala | Södermanlands | Gävleborgs | Stockholm |
City | Boden | Uppsala city | Eskilstuna | Sandviken | Stockholm city |
Own home (Y/N) | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y |
Building complexity * (Y/N) | N | N | N | N | N |
Building type (attached/detached) | attached | detached | attached | attached | attached |
Construction year | 1971 | 1970 | 1965 | 1960 | 1969 |
Heated area (m2, Atemp > 10 °C, except storage room) | 132 | 190 | 176 | 142 | 154 |
Number of basement floors (>10 °C, except storage room) m2 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 |
Number of floors aboveground | 1 | 3 | 1 | 2 | 2 |
Number of stairs | 0 | 0 (0) | 0 | 0 | 0 (0) |
Number of residential apartments | 1 (1) | 1 | 1 | 1 (1) | 1 |
Available electrical power for heating and water (>10 W/m2, Y/N) | N | N | N | N | Y |
The building’s energy use for heating and warm water, kWh | 22,400 | 34,000 | 21,200 | 20,800 | 18,500 |
The building’s energy use for household, etc., kWh | 7300 | 5000 | 4200 | 2800 | 24,414 (24,900) |
The building’s total energy use, kWh | 22,400 | 34,000 | 21,200 | 20,800 | 18,500 |
The electricity that is included in the building’s energy use, kWh | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 18,500 |
Normal year adjusted value (degree days), kWh | 22,767 | 37,522 | 0 | 21,060 | 0 |
Normal year adjusted value (Energy Index) | 22,761 | 36,988 | 22,800 | 20,938 | 21,247 |
Energy consumption per area, kWh/m2, year | 172 | 195 | 130 | 147 | 138 |
Energy consumption per area of which electricity, kWh/m2, year | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 138 |
Reference value 1 (according to new building requirements), kWh/m2, year | 130 | 90 | 90 | 110 | 55 |
Reference value 2, min (statistical range), kWh/m2, year | 180 | 122 | 132 | 143 | 132 |
Reference value 2, max (statistical range), kWh/m2, year | 220 | 149 | 162 | 175 | 162 |
Energy version | 2012 | 2012 | 2015 | 2012 | 2015 |
Energy class | D | F | E | D | G |
Requirement for regular ventilation control in the building (Y/N) | N | N | N | N | N |
Ventilation system FTX (Y/N) | N | N | N | N | N |
Ventilation system F (Y/N) | N | N | N | N | N |
Ventilation system FT (Y/N) | N | N | N | N | N |
Ventilation system natural ventilation (Y/N) | N | N | Y | N | Y |
Ventilation system F with recycling (Y/N) | N | N | N | N | N |
Available air-conditioning systems with nominal cooling power greater than 12 Kw (Y/N) | N | N | N | N | N |
Item of samples (#) | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 |
Province | Östergötlands | Norrbottens | Västernorrlands | Skåne | Skåne |
City | Norrköping | Piteå | Härnösand | Trelleborg | Osby |
Own home (Y/N) | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y |
Building complexity * (Y/N) | N | N | N | N | N (N) |
Building type (attached/detached) | attached | attached | attached | detached | attached |
Construction year | 1962 | 1934 | 1932 | 1900 | 1958 |
Heated area (m2, Atemp > 10 °C, except storage room) | 185 | 110 | 190 | 90 | 119 |
Number of basement floors (> 10 °C, except storage room), m2 | 1 | 0(0) | 1 | 0 | 1 |
Number of floors aboveground | 1 | 2(2) | 2 | 1 | 1 |
Number of stairs | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Number of residential apartments | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Available electrical power for heating and water (>10 W/m2, Y/N) | N | Y | Y | Y | N |
The building’s energy use for heating and warm water, kWh | 27,100 | 10,800 | 16,400 | 11,800 | 19,999 (20,000) |
The building’s energy use for household, etc., kWh | 5173 (4000) | 14,000 | 21,600 | 17,300 | 4482 (4500) |
The building’s total energy use, kWh | 27,100 | 11,249 (10,800) | 16,400 | 11,800 | 20,028 (20,000) |
The electricity that is included in the building’s energy use, kWh | 0 | 10,800 | 16,400 | 11,800 | 0 |
Normal year adjusted value (degree days), kWh | 31,682 | 12,156 | 19,368 | 8139 (11,611) | 13,751 (21,683) |
Normal year adjusted value (Energy Index) | 30,905 | 12,632 | 19,451 | 12,687 (12,021) | 21,376 (20,955) |
Energy consumption per area, kWh/m2, year | 167 | 115 | 102 | 141 (134) | 180 (176) |
Energy consumption per area of which electricity, kWh/m2, year | 0 | 115 | 102 | 134 | 0 |
Reference value 1 (according to new building requirements), kWh/m2, year | 90 | 95 | 75 | 55 | 90 |
Reference value 2, min (statistical range), kWh/m2, year | 132 | 153 | 153 | 112 | 159 |
Reference value 2, max (statistical range), kWh/m2, year | 162 | 188 | 187 | 137 | 194 |
Energy version | 2012 | 2012 | 2012 | 2012 | 2012 |
Energy class | F | D | E (E) | G (G) | F (F) |
Requirement for regular ventilation control in the building (Y/N) | N | N | N | N | N |
Ventilation system FTX (Y/N) | N | N | N(N) | N | N |
Ventilation system F (Y/N) | N | N | N(N) | N | N |
Ventilation system FT (Y/N) | N | N | N(N) | N | N |
Ventilation system natural ventilation (Y/N) | Y | N | N(Y) | N | N |
Ventilation system F with recycling (Y/N) | N | N | N(N) | N | N |
Available air-conditioning systems with nominal cooling power greater than 12 Kw (Y/N) | N | N | N | N | N |
Item of Samples | 1 | 2 | 3 | … | … | 40,735 | 40,736 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Building Properties | |||||||
Province | Stockholm | Stockholm | Stockholm | … | … | Stockholm | Stockholm |
City | Norrtälje | Stockholm city | Sundbyberg | … | … | Södertälje | Södertälje |
Own home (Y/N) | N | N | N | … | … | N | N |
Building complexity (Y/N) | N | N | N | … | … | N | N |
building type (attached/detached) | attached | attached | attached | … | … | attached | attached |
Construction year | 1971 | 1770 | 1909 | … | … | 1909 | 1968 |
Heated area (m2, Atemp > 10 °C, except storage room) | 205 | 71 | 193 | … | … | 185 | 305 |
Number of basement floors heated (>10 °C, except storage room) m2 | 1 | 0 | 1 | … | … | 0 | 1 |
Number of floors aboveground | 1 | NaN | 2 | … | … | 2 | 1 |
Number of stairs | 0 | NaN | NaN | … | … | NaN | 2 |
Number of residential apartments | 1 | NaN | 1 | … | … | NaN | 0 |
Available electrical power for heating and water (>10 W/m2, Y/N) | N | Y | N | … | … | Y | N |
The building’s energy use for heating and warm water kWh | 40,000 | 10,000 | 41,582 | … | … | 30,092 | 12,900 |
The building’s energy use for household, etc., kWh | 0 | 10,450 | 6622 | … | … | 37,402 | 16,900 |
The building’s total energy use kWh | 40,000 | 10,450 | 41,582 | … | … | 30,484 | 16,900 |
The electricity that is included in the building’s energy use kWh | 0 | 10,450 | 2162 | … | … | 30,484 | 16,900 |
Normal year adjusted value (degree days) kWh | 42,740 | 11,838 | 46,680 | … | … | 31,520 | 18,167 |
Normal year adjusted value (Energy Index) | 42,598 | 11,518 | 46,989 | … | … | 32,579 | 18,246 |
Energy consumption per area kWh/m2, year | 208 | 162 | 243 | … | … | 176 | 60 |
Energy consumption per area of which electricity kWh/m2, year | 0 | 162 | 13 | … | … | 176 | 60 |
Reference value 1 (according to new building requirements) kWh/m2, year | 110 | 55 | 110 | … | … | 55 | 110 |
Reference value 2, min (statistical range) kWh/m2, year | 159 | 132 | 157 | … | … | 132 | 79 |
Reference value 2, max (statistical range) kWh/m2, year | 194 | 162 | 192 | … | … | 162 | 97 |
Energy version | 2010 | 2010 | 2010 | … | … | 2010 | 2010 |
Energy class | F | G | F | … | … | G | B |
Requirement for regular ventilation control in the building (Y/N) | N | N | N | … | … | Y | NaN |
Ventilation system FTX (Y/N) | N | N | N | … | … | N | NaN |
Ventilation system F (Y/N) | N | N | N | … | … | N | NaN |
Ventilation system FT (Y/N) | N | N | N | … | … | N | NaN |
Ventilation system natural ventilation (Y/N) | Y | N | Y | … | … | Y | NaN |
Ventilation system F with recycling (Y/N) | N | N | N | … | … | N | NaN |
Available air-conditioning systems with nominal cooling power greater than 12 Kw (Y/N) | N | N | N | … | … | N | 0 |
Suggested Retrofitting Strategy and Performances (Y/N) | |||||||
New radiator valves | N | N | N | … | … | N | N |
Adjustment of heating system | N | N | N | … | … | N | N |
Time/need control of heating system | N | N | N | … | … | N | N |
Cleaning and/or aeration of heating | N | N | N | … | … | N | N |
Maximum indoor temperature limit | N | N | N | … | … | N | N |
New indoor sensor | N | N | N | … | … | N | N |
Replacement/installation of pressure-controlled pumps | N | N | N | … | … | N | N |
Other action on heating system | N | N | N | … | … | N | N |
Adjustment of ventilation system * | N | N | N | … | … | N | N |
Timing of ventilation system | N | N | N | … | … | N | N |
Need control of ventilation system | N | N | N | … | … | N | N |
Replacement/installation of speed-controlled fans | N | N | N | … | … | N | N |
Other action on ventilation | N | N | N | … | … | N | N |
Time/need control of lighting | N | N | N | … | … | N | N |
Time/need control of cold | N | N | N | … | … | N | N |
Other action on lighting, cooling | N | N | N | … | … | N | N |
Hot-water-saving measures | N | N | N | … | … | N | Y |
Energy efficient lighting | N | N | N | … | … | N | N |
Insulation of pipes and ventilation ducts | N | N | N | … | … | N | N |
Replacement/installation of heat pump | Y | Y | N | … | … | Y | N |
Replacement/installation of energy efficient heat source | N | N | N | … | … | N | N |
Replacement/completion of ventilation system | N | N | N | … | … | N | N |
Recovery of ventilation heat | N | N | N | … | … | N | N |
Other action on installation | N | N | Y | … | … | N | N |
Additional insulation of attic ceiling/roof | N | N | N | … | … | N | N |
Additional insulation walls | N | N | N | … | … | N | N |
Additional insulation basement/ground | N | N | N | … | … | N | N |
Installation of solar cells | N | N | N | … | … | N | N |
Installation of solar heating | N | N | N | … | … | N | N |
Change to energy efficient windows/window doors with inner window | N | N | N | … | … | N | N |
Complement window/window doors with inner window | N | N | N | … | … | N | N |
Sealing windows/window doors/exterior doors | N | N | N | … | … | N | N |
Other measure (construction) | N | N | N | … | … | N | N |
Energy-savings (kWh/a) | 16,000 | 4000 | 3659 | … | … | 16,900 | 385 |
Cost (SEK/a) | 14,400 | 1840 | 1353.83 | … | … | 13,520 | 65.45 |
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No. | Building Property | No. | Building Property |
---|---|---|---|
1. | Location (province) | 18. | Normal year adjusted value (Energy Index) |
2. | Location (city) | 19. | Energy consumption per area |
3. | Own home (Y/N) | 20. | Energy consumption per area of which electricity |
4. | Building complexity* (Y/N) | 21. | Reference value 1 (according to new building requirements) kWh/m2, year |
5. | Building type (attached/detached) | 22. | Reference value 2, min (statistical range) kWh/m2, year |
6. | Construction year | 23. | Reference value 2, max (statistical range) kWh/m2, year |
7. | Heated area (m2, Atemp > 10 °C, except storage room) | 24. | Energy version |
8. | Number of basement floors heated (>10 °C, except storage room), m2 | 25. | Energy class * |
9. | Number of floors aboveground | 26. | Requirement for regular ventilation control in the building (Y/N) |
10. | Number of stairs | 27. | Ventilation system FTX (Y/N) |
11. | Number of residential apartments | 28. | Ventilation system F (Y/N) |
12. | Available electrical power for heating and water (>10 W/m2) | 29. | Ventilation system FT (Y/N) |
13. | The building’s energy use for heating and warm water * kWh | 30. | Ventilation system natural ventilation (Y/N) |
14. | The building’s energy use for household, etc. * kWh | 31. | Ventilation system F with recycling (Y/N) |
15. | The building’s total energy use * kWh | 32. | Available air-conditioning systems with nominal cooling power greater than 12 kW (Y/N) |
16. | The electricity that is included in the building’s energy use kWh | 33. | Date of approval |
17. | Normal year adjusted value (degree days) kWh | 34. | EPC version |
No. | Retrofit Strategy | No. | Retrofit Strategy |
---|---|---|---|
1. | New radiator valves | 18. | Energy efficient lighting |
2. | Adjustment of heating system | 19. | Insulation of pipes and ventilation ducts |
3. | Time/need control of heating system | 20. | Replacement/installation of heat pump |
4. | Cleaning and/or aeration of heating | 21. | Replacement/installation of energy efficient heat source |
5. | Maximum indoor temperature limit | 22. | Replacement/completion of ventilation system |
6. | New indoor sensor | 23. | Recovery of ventilation heat |
7. | Replacement/installation of pressure-controlled pumps | 24. | Other action on installation |
8. | Other action on heating system | 25. | Additional insulation of attic ceiling/roof |
9. | Adjustment of ventilation system | 26. | Additional insulation walls |
10. | Timing of ventilation system | 27. | Additional insulation basement/ground |
11. | Need control of ventilation system | 28. | Installation of solar cells |
12. | Replacement/installation of speed-controlled fans | 29. | Installation of solar heating |
13. | Other action on ventilation | 30. | Change to energy efficient windows/window doors with inner window |
14. | Time/need control of lighting | 31. | Complement window/window doors with inner window |
15. | Time/need control of cold | 32. | Sealing windows/window doors/exterior doors |
16. | Other action on lighting, cooling | 33. | Other measure (construction) |
17. | Hot-water-saving measures | -- | -- |
Structure of Baseline Model | RMSE | R2 | Structure of Endpoints Model | RMSE | R2 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
67-10-10-10-10-2 | 1.56 × 103 | 0.825 | 67-10-10-10-10-2 | 2.45 × 103 | 0.998 |
67-10-10-2 | 1.29 × 103 | 0.875 | 67-10-10-2 | 3.45 × 103 | 0.998 |
67-10-2 | 1.70 × 103 | 0.787 | 67-10-2 | 7.09 × 103 | 0.996 |
67-3-2 | 1.31 × 103 | 0.871 | 67-3-2 | 1.75 × 104 | 0.991 |
Data Imputation Method | Mean Squared Prediction Error | Absolute Value Error * |
---|---|---|
PCA–TSR | 2.78 × 105 | −1/+28/+4 |
Mean Imputation (MI) | 1.66 × 106 | −348/−319/+1 |
Statistics Imputation (SI) | 3.23 × 106 | −421/−394/−37 |
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Feng, K.; Lu, W.; Wang, Y.; Man, Q. Energy-Efficient Retrofitting under Incomplete Information: A Data-Driven Approach and Empirical Study of Sweden. Buildings 2022, 12, 1244. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings12081244
Feng K, Lu W, Wang Y, Man Q. Energy-Efficient Retrofitting under Incomplete Information: A Data-Driven Approach and Empirical Study of Sweden. Buildings. 2022; 12(8):1244. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings12081244
Chicago/Turabian StyleFeng, Kailun, Weizhuo Lu, Yaowu Wang, and Qingpeng Man. 2022. "Energy-Efficient Retrofitting under Incomplete Information: A Data-Driven Approach and Empirical Study of Sweden" Buildings 12, no. 8: 1244. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings12081244