Interfacial Behavior of Slag, Fly Ash, and Red Mud-Based Geopolymer Mortar with Concrete Substrate: Mechanical Properties and Microstructure
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Raw Materials
2.2. OPC Concrete Substrate
2.3. Geopolymer Mortar
2.4. Testing Method
2.4.1. Splitting Tensile Test
2.4.2. Double-Sided Shear Test
2.4.3. Three-Point Bending Test
2.5. Characterization Methods
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Compressive Strength of Geopolymer Mortar
3.2. Splitting Tensile Strength
3.3. Double-Sided Shear Strength
3.4. Three-Point Bending Strength
3.5. SEM Analysis
3.6. XRD Analysis
4. Conclusions
- The compressive strength of the GPM displayed an increasing evolution with the improvement of the slag content, however, with the growth of the fly ash content it revealed a minor increase followed by a gradual levelling off. Limited amounts of red mud produced favorable effects on the compressive strength of GPM to a certain extent, whereas excessive amounts of red mud produced more of a negative effect. Overall, the optimum mix ratio for GPM was S33F33R33 based on compressive strength.
- The splitting tensile strength of GPM and concrete substrate with the growth of slag and fly ash content all demonstrated the rule of change of the first growth and then decline, in which the fly ash presented a favorable effect and was better than the slag, however, with the increase in red mud content, it presented an approximate linear decline in the trend of change.
- The double-sided shear strength of GPM and concrete substrate exhibited a continuous improvement with the increase in slag content, however, it tended to decrease slowly with the increase in fly ash and red mud content.
- The three-point bending strength of GPM and concrete substrate was not as good as that of cement mortar under the condition of less slag mixing, however, with the increase in fly ash content, it presented the variation tendency of increasing and then decreasing, and with the growth of red mud content, exhibited a continuous decreasing trend.
- From the SEM analysis, it can be seen that the number and distribution range of pores and microcracks in the ITZ of GPM and concrete substrate gradually shrank with the increase in slag dosage. Under the condition of moderate amount of fly ash, the ITZ of GPM and concrete substrate exhibited complete and considerable continuity, however, the higher content of fly ash caused microcracks to appear in the ITZ, and the internal structure of the GPM showed the characteristics of being loose and porous. An appropriate quantity of red mud can effectively improve the structural density of GPM and enhance the smooth continuity of ITZ, but excessive red mud leads to the increase in surface roughness and the generation of porous defects in ITZ.
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Masoud, M.A.; Kansouh, W.A.; Shahien, M.G.; Sakr, K.; Rashad, A.M.; Zayed, A.M. An experimental investigation on the effects of barite/hematite on the radiation shielding properties of serpentine concretes. Prog. Nucl. Energ. 2020, 120, 103220. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zayed, A.M.; Masoud, M.A.; Rashad, A.M.; El-Khayatt, A.M.; Sakr, K.; Kansouh, W.A.; Shahien, M.G. Influence of heavyweight aggregates on the physico-mechanical and radiation attenuation properties of serpentine-based concrete. Constr. Build. Mater. 2020, 260, 120473. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Masoud, M.A.; El-Khayatt, A.M.; Kansouh, W.A.; Sakr, K.; Shahien, M.G.; Zayed, A.M. Insights into the effect of the mineralogical composition of serpentine aggregates on the radiation attenuation properties of their concretes. Constr. Build. Mater. 2020, 263, 120141. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rodrigues, R.; Gaboreau, S.; Gance, J.; Ignatiadis, I.; Betelu, S. Reinforced concrete structures: A review of corrosion mechanisms and advances in electrical methods for corrosion monitoring. Constr. Build. Mater. 2021, 269, 121240. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Peng, L.; Zeng, W.; Zhao, Y.; Li, L.; Poon, C.; Zheng, H. Steel corrosion and corrosion-induced cracking in reinforced concrete with carbonated recycled aggregate. Cem. Concr. Compos. 2022, 133, 104694. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tian, Y.; Zhang, G.; Ye, H.; Zeng, Q.; Zhang, Z.; Tian, Z.; Jin, N.; Jin, N.; Chen, Z.; Wang, J. Corrosion of steel rebar in concrete induced by chloride ions under natural environments. Constr. Build. Mater. 2023, 369, 130504. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gomaa, E.; Gheni, A.; ElGawady, M.A. Repair of ordinary Portland cement concrete using ambient-cured alkali-activated concrete: Interfacial behavior. Cem. Concr. Res. 2020, 129, 105968. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Liu, D.; Wang, C.; Gonzalez-Libreros, J.; Guo, T.; Cao, J.; Tu, Y.; Elfgren, L.; Sas, G. A review of concrete properties under the combined effect of fatigue and corrosion from a material perspective. Constr. Build. Mater. 2023, 369, 130489. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, L.; Zhang, Q. Investigation on water absorption in concrete after subjected to compressive fatigue loading. Constr. Build. Mater. 2021, 299, 123897. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, P.; Mo, R.; Li, S.; Xu, J.; Jin, Z.; Zhao, T.; Wang, D. A chemo-damage-transport model for chloride ions diffusion in cement-based materials: Combined effects of sulfate attack and temperature. Constr. Build. Mater. 2021, 288, 123121. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ukpata, J.O.; Basheer, P.A.M.; Black, L. Slag hydration and chloride binding in slag cements exposed to a combined chloride-sulphate solution. Constr. Build. Mater. 2019, 195, 238–248. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shaheen, F.; Pradhan, B. Influence of sulfate ion and associated cation type on steel reinforcement corrosion in concrete powder aqueous solution in the presence of chloride ions. Cem. Concr. Res. 2017, 91, 73–86. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wu, L.; Farzadnia, N.; Shi, C.; Zhang, Z.; Wang, H. Autogenous shrinkage of high performance concrete: A review. Constr. Build. Mater. 2017, 149, 62–75. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mao, Y.; Liu, J.; Shi, C. Autogenous shrinkage and drying shrinkage of recycled aggregate concrete: A review. J. Clean. Prod. 2021, 295, 126435. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Woźniak, Z.Z.; Chajec, A.; Sadowski, Ł. Effect of the Partial Replacement of Cement with Waste Granite Powder on the Properties of Fresh and Hardened Mortars for Masonry Applications. Materials 2022, 15, 9066. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Teixeira, O.G.; Geraldo, R.H.; da Silva, F.G.; Gonçalves, J.P.; Camarini, G. Mortar type influence on mechanical performance of repaired reinforced concrete beams. Constr. Build. Mater. 2019, 217, 372–383. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Assaad, J.J.; Khayat, K.H. Form pressure characteristics of self-consolidating concrete used in repair. Cem. Concr. Compos. 2021, 122, 104118. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Reggia, A.; Morbi, A.; Plizzari, G.A. Experimental study of a reinforced concrete bridge pier strengthened with HPFRC jacketing. Eng. Struct. 2020, 210, 110355. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Valikhani, A.; Jahromi, A.J.; Mantawy, I.M.; Azizinamini, A. Experimental evaluation of concrete-to-UHPC bond strength with correlation to surface roughness for repair application. Constr. Build. Mater. 2020, 238, 117753. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gao, T.; Shen, L.; Shen, M.; Chen, F.; Liu, L.; Gao, L. Analysis on differences of carbon dioxide emission from cement production and their major determinants. J. Clean. Prod. 2015, 103, 160–170. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- El-Hassan, H.; Elkholy, S. Enhancing the performance of Alkali-Activated Slag-Fly ash blended concrete through hybrid steel fiber reinforcement. Constr. Build. Mater. 2021, 311, 125313. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Thomas, B.S.; Yang, J.; Bahurudeen, A.; Chinnu, S.N.; Abdalla, J.A.; Hawileh, R.A.; Hamada, H.M. Geopolymer concrete incorporating recycled aggregates: A comprehensive review. Constr. Build. Mater. 2022, 3, 100056. [Google Scholar]
- Singh, B.; Ishwarya, G.; Gupta, M.; Bhattacharyya, S.K. Geopolymer concrete: A review of some recent developments. Constr. Build. Mater. 2015, 85, 78–90. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Habert, G.; Miller, S.A.; John, V.M.; Provis, J.L.; Favier, A.; Horvath, A.; Scrivener, K.L. Environmental impacts and decarbonization strategies in the cement and concrete industries. Nat. Rev. Earth Environ. 2020, 1, 559–573. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cong, P.; Cheng, Y. Advances in geopolymer materials: A comprehensive review. J. Traffic Transp. Eng. 2021, 8, 283–314. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Huang, W.; Wang, H. Geopolymer pervious concrete modified with granulated blast furnace slag: Microscale characterization and mechanical strength. J. Clean. Prod. 2021, 328, 129469. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nath, P.; Sarker, P.K. Flexural strength and elastic modulus of ambient-cured blended low-calcium fly ash geopolymer concrete. Constr. Build. Mater. 2017, 130, 22–31. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Albidah, A.; Alghannam, M.; Abbas, H.; Almusallam, T.; Al-Salloum, Y. Characteristics of metakaolin-based geopolymer concrete for different mix design parameters. J. Mater. Res. Technol. 2021, 10, 84–98. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bature, A.S.; Khorami, M.; Ganjian, E.; Tyrer, M. Influence of alkali activator type and proportion on strength performance of calcined clay geopolymer mortar. Constr. Build. Mater. 2021, 267, 120446. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Demir, F.; Derun, E.M. Modelling and optimization of gold mine tailings based geopolymer by using response surface method and its application in Pb2+ removal. J. Clean. Prod. 2019, 237, 117766. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Qaidi, S.M.A.; Tayeh, B.A.; Zeyad, A.M.; de Azevedo, A.R.G.; Ahmed, H.U.; Emad, W. Recycling of mine tailings for the geopolymers production: A systematic review. Case Stud. Constr. Mat. 2022, 16, e00933. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Laskar, S.M.; Talukdar, S. A study on the performance of damaged RC members repaired using ultra-fine slag based geopolymer mortar. Constr. Build. Mater. 2019, 217, 216–225. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zailani, W.W.A.; Abdullah, M.M.A.B.; Arshad, M.F.; Razak, R.F.; Tahir, M.F.M.; Zainol, R.R.M.A.; Nabialek, M.; Sandu, A.V.; Wyslocki, J.J.; Bloch, K. Characterisation at the bonding zone between fly ash based geopolymer repair materials (GRM) and ordinary portland cement concrete (OPCC). Materials 2020, 14, 56. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, Y.S.; Peng, K.D.; Alrefaei, Y.; Dai, J. The bond between geopolymer repair mortars and OPC concrete substrate: Strength and microscopic interactions. Cem. Concr. Compos. 2021, 119, 103991. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, S.; Jin, H.; Deng, Y.; Xiao, Y. Comprehensive utilization status of red mud in China: A critical review. J. Clean. Prod. 2021, 289, 125136. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhao, H.; Gou, H. Unfired bricks prepared with red mud and calcium sulfoaluminate cement: Properties and environmental impact. J. Build. Eng. 2021, 38, 102238. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mudgal, M.; Singh, A.; Chouhan, R.K.; Acharya, A.; Srivastava, A.K. Fly ash red mud geopolymer with improved mechanical strength. Clean. Eng. Technol. 2021, 4, 100215. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Khairul, M.A.; Zanganeh, J.; Moghtaderi, B. The composition, recycling and utilisation of Bayer red mud. Resour. Conserv. Recy. 2019, 141, 483–498. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Atan, E.; Sutcu, M.; Cam, A.S. Combined effects of bayer process bauxite waste (red mud) and agricultural waste on technological properties of fired clay bricks. J. Build. Eng. 2021, 43, 103194. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kim, S.Y.; Jun, Y.; Jeon, D.; Oh, J.E. Synthesis of structural binder for red brick production based on red mud and fly ash activated using Ca(OH)2 and Na2CO3. Constr. Build. Mater. 2017, 147, 101–116. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Xu, X.; Song, J.; Li, Y.; Wu, J.; Liu, X.; Zhang, C. The microstructure and properties of ceramic tiles from solid wastes of Bayer red muds. Constr. Build. Mater. 2019, 212, 266–274. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Qaidi, S.M.A.; Tayeh, B.A.; Ahmed, H.U.; Emad, W. A review of the sustainable utilisation of red mud and fly ash for the production of geopolymer composites. Constr. Build. Mater. 2022, 350, 128892. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zakira, U.; Zheng, K.; Xie, N.; Birgisson, B. Development of high-strength geopolymers from red mud and blast furnace slag. J. Clean. Prod. 2023, 383, 135439. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Liang, X.; Ji, Y. Experimental study on durability of red mud-blast furnace slag geopolymer mortar. Constr. Build. Mater. 2021, 267, 120942. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hertel, T.; Pontikes, Y. Geopolymers, inorganic polymers, alkali-activated materials and hybrid binders from bauxite residue (red mud)-Putting things in perspective. J. Clean. Prod. 2020, 258, 120610. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hai, R.; Zheng, J.; Li, J.; Hui, C.; Liu, J. Preparation mechanism and properties of thermal activated red mud and its geopolymer repair mortar. Case Stud. Constr. Mat. 2024, 20, e02853. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Amran, M.; Debbarma, S.; Ozbakkaloglu, T. Fly ash-based eco-friendly geopolymer concrete: A critical review of the long-term durability properties. Constr. Build. Mater. 2021, 270, 121857. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Guo, S.; Wu, Y.; Jia, Z.; Qi, X.; Wang, W. Sodium-based activators in alkali-activated materials: Classification and comparison. J. Build. Eng. 2023, 70, 106397. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Luo, Z.; Zhang, B.; Zou, J.; Luo, B. Sulfate erosion resistance of slag-fly ash based geopolymer stabilized soft soil under semi-immersion condition. Case Stud. Constr. Mat. 2022, 17, e01506. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Santos, P.M.D.; Julio, E.N.B.S. Correlation between concrete-to-concrete bond strength and the roughness of the substrate surface. Constr. Build. Mater. 2007, 21, 1688–1695. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Momayez, A.; Ehsani, M.R.; Ramezanianpour, A.A.; Rajaie, H. Comparison of methods for evaluating bond strength between concrete substrate and repair materials. Cem. Concr. Res. 2005, 35, 748–757. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zayed, A.M.; Masoud, M.A.; Shahien, M.G.; Gökçe, H.S.; Sakr, K.; Kansouh, W.A.; El-Khayatt, A.M. Physical, mechanical, and radiation attenuation properties of serpentine concrete containing boric acid. Constr. Build. Mater. 2021, 272, 121641. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Masoud, M.A.; Rashad, A.M.; Sakr, K.; Shahien, M.G.; Zayed, A.M. Possibility of using different types of Egyptian serpentine as fine and coarse aggregates for concrete production. Mater. Struct. 2020, 53, 1–17. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Masoud, M.A.; El-Khayatt, A.M.; Mahmoud, K.A.; Rashad, A.M.; Shahien, M.G.; Bakhit, B.R.; Zayed, A.M. Valorization of hazardous chrysotile by H3BO3 incorporation to produce an innovative eco-friendly radiation shielding concrete: Implications on physico-mechanical, hydration, microstructural, and shielding properties. Cem. Concr. Comp. 2023, 141, 105120. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Moudio, A.M.N.; Tchakoute, H.K.; Ngnintedem, D.L.V.; Andreola, F.; Kamseu, E.; Nanseu-Njiki, C.P.; Leonelli, C.; Rüscher, C.H. Influence of the synthetic calcium aluminate hydrate and the mixture of calcium aluminate and silicate hydrates on the compressive strengths and the microstructure of metakaolin-based geopolymer cements. Mater. Chem. Phys. 2021, 264, 124459. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Luo, Z.; Zhang, B. Effect of humic acid and fulvic acid on mechanical and durability properties of geopolymer stabilized soft soil. Constr. Build. Mater. 2023, 409, 133875. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nath, P.; Sarker, P.K. Effect of GGBFS on setting, workability and early strength properties of fly ash geopolymer concrete cured in ambient condition. Constr. Build. Mater. 2014, 66, 163–171. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hu, W.; Nie, Q.; Huang, B.; Shu, X.; He, Q. Mechanical and microstructural characterization of geopolymers derived from red mud and fly ashes. J. Clean. Prod. 2018, 186, 799–806. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- John, S.K.; Nadir, Y.; Girija, K. Effect of source materials, additives on the mechanical properties and durability of fly ash and fly ash-slag geopolymer mortar: A review. Constr. Build. Mater. 2021, 280, 122443. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- He, Y.; Zhang, X.; Hooton, R.D.; Zhang, X. Effects of interface roughness and interface adhesion on new-to-old concrete bonding. Constr. Build. Mater. 2017, 151, 582–590. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
CaO | Al2O3 | SiO2 | MgO | Fe2O3 | SO3 | K2O | TiO2 | Others | LOI | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Slag | 35.30 | 16.70 | 34.50 | 5.01 | 1.50 | 1.24 | - | - | 5.75 | 1.85 |
Fly ash | 2.32 | 34.70 | 53.04 | 0.86 | 2.53 | 0.35 | 1.76 | 1.25 | 3.19 | 2.38 |
Red mud | 1.01 | 11.06 | 25.79 | 1.01 | 53.63 | 1.17 | 1.44 | 2.02 | 2.87 | 1.96 |
cement | 49.20 | 11.52 | 27.50 | 1.18 | 3.38 | - | - | - | 7.22 | 2.06 |
Detail | Slag (wt.%) | Fly Ash (wt.%) | Red Mud (wt.%) | OPC (wt.%) | Binder/ Sand | Alkali Activator | Water/ Binder | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Modulus | Content (wt.%) | |||||||
S33F33R33 | 33 | 33 | 33 | - | 2 | 1.2 | 40 | 0.4 |
S10F45R45 | 10 | 45 | 45 | - | 2 | 1.2 | 40 | 0.4 |
S15F42.5R42.5 | 15 | 42.5 | 42.5 | - | 2 | 1.2 | 40 | 0.4 |
S20F40R40 | 20 | 40 | 40 | - | 2 | 1.2 | 40 | 0.4 |
S45F10R45 | 45 | 10 | 45 | - | 2 | 1.2 | 40 | 0.4 |
S42.5F15R42.5 | 42.5 | 15 | 42.5 | - | 2 | 1.2 | 40 | 0.4 |
S40F20R40 | 40 | 20 | 40 | - | 2 | 1.2 | 40 | 0.4 |
S45F45R10 | 45 | 45 | 10 | - | 2 | 1.2 | 40 | 0.4 |
S42.5F42.5R15 | 42.5 | 42.5 | 15 | - | 2 | 1.2 | 40 | 0.4 |
S40F40R20 | 40 | 40 | 20 | - | 2 | 1.2 | 40 | 0.4 |
OPC100 | - | - | - | 100 | 2 | - | - | 0.4 |
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2024 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Long, Q.; Zhao, Y.; Zhang, B.; Yang, H.; Luo, Z.; Li, Z.; Zhang, G.; Liu, K. Interfacial Behavior of Slag, Fly Ash, and Red Mud-Based Geopolymer Mortar with Concrete Substrate: Mechanical Properties and Microstructure. Buildings 2024, 14, 652. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14030652
Long Q, Zhao Y, Zhang B, Yang H, Luo Z, Li Z, Zhang G, Liu K. Interfacial Behavior of Slag, Fly Ash, and Red Mud-Based Geopolymer Mortar with Concrete Substrate: Mechanical Properties and Microstructure. Buildings. 2024; 14(3):652. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14030652
Chicago/Turabian StyleLong, Qinghui, Yufei Zhao, Benben Zhang, Huichen Yang, Zhengdong Luo, Zhengyang Li, Genbao Zhang, and Kun Liu. 2024. "Interfacial Behavior of Slag, Fly Ash, and Red Mud-Based Geopolymer Mortar with Concrete Substrate: Mechanical Properties and Microstructure" Buildings 14, no. 3: 652. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14030652