Facing Climate Change in a Temperate European City: Urban-Scale Diagnosis of Indoor Overheating and Adaptation Strategies for Residential Buildings
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- To calculate the impact of building parameters on indoor overheating hours (IOH);
- To analyse which residential typologies are more vulnerable to overheating;
- To quantify the IOH reduction when the thermal envelopes of residential buildings are refurbished to meet the standards required by current energy regulations;
- To compare the IOH reduction between the retrofitting of thermal envelopes using traditional systems or incorporating nature-based solutions (green roofs).
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Case Study
2.2. Climate
Microclimate Consideration
2.3. Residential Typologies
2.4. Residential Buildings’ Current Scenario
- No regulation period (<1980): buildings built prior to 1980 (the majority were built between 1940 and 1980). The energy requirements for this time period are based on the analysis of real projects [24], as there were no energy regulations.
- CT-79 period: buildings built between 1980 and 2006 following the first energy regulation standard in Spain- NBE CT-79 [56], which was developed as a consequence of the 1970s energy crisis.
- CTE 2019 period (after 2020): buildings built after 2020 following the Spanish Technical Building Code with the 2019 update, with the objective of meeting the nZEB standard in new and refurbished buildings [57].
2.5. Residential Buildings’ Retrofitting Scenarios
- SCENARIO 1: All residential buildings in the city, built before the first Spanish Technical Building Code (CTE 2006), improve their envelopes to meet the standards required by current energy regulations (CTE 2019).
- SCENARIO 2: Vulnerable dwellings improve their envelopes with traditional systems and with high insulation thicknesses in their roofs.
- SCENARIO 3: Vulnerable dwellings improve their envelopes by incorporating nature-based solutions in their roofs (green roofs).
2.6. Energy Simulation Development
2.7. Statistical Methods and Overheating Metrics
3. Results
3.1. Impact of Building Parameters on IOH
3.2. Analysis of Residential Typologies More Vulnerable to Overheating
3.3. IOH Reduction in Retrofitting Scenario 1
3.4. IOH Reduction in Retrofitting Scenarios 2 and 3
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
IOH | Indoor Overheating Hours |
AC | Air Conditioning |
EU | European Union |
EPBD | Energy Performance of Buildings Directive |
IEA | International Energy Agency |
AEMET | Spanish State Meteorological Agency, acronym in Spanish |
UWG | Urban Weather Generator |
UHI | Urban Heat Island |
H | Average building height |
SCR | Urban area building plan density (site coverage ratio) |
FSR | Urban area vertical to horizontal ratio (façade to site ratio) |
TCR | Fraction of the urban ground covered in trees |
VCR | Fraction of the urban ground covered in grass/shrubs only |
TF | Top floor |
IF | Intermediate floor |
NBS | Nature-Based Solution |
GIS | Geographic Information System |
Appendix A
Code | Building Description | Plan |
---|---|---|
11 | Linear block: 2 dwellings per floor Area of dwelling: 90 m2 Two opposite orientations per dwelling | |
12 | Linear block: 3–4 dwellings per floor Area of dwelling: 85 m2 Two dwellings with one orientation One dwelling with two opposite orientations | |
13 | Linear block: >8 dwellings per floor Area of dwelling: 80 m2 Dwellings with one orientation | |
14 | Linear block: >8 dwellings per floor Area of dwelling (duplex): 120 m2 Two opposite orientations per dwelling | |
15 | Linear block: 4 dwellings per floor Area of dwelling: 110 m2 Two orientations per dwelling that form 90° | |
21 | H-block: 4 dwellings per floor Area of dwelling: 90 m2 Two opposite orientations per dwelling | |
22 | H-block: 4 dwellings per floor Area of dwelling: 105 m2 Two opposite orientations per dwelling | |
31 | Tower: 4 dwellings per floor Area of dwelling: 90 m2 Two opposite orientations per dwelling | |
32 | Tower: 4 dwellings per floor Area of dwelling: 95 m2 Two orientations per dwelling that form 90° | |
33 | Tower: 2 dwellings per floor Area of dwelling: 105 m2 Three orientations per dwelling | |
34 | Tower: 6 dwellings per floor Area of dwelling: 100 m2 Two dwellings with one orientation Four dwellings with two orientations that form 90° | |
51 | Detached house: Two façades Area of dwelling: 70 m2 Two opposite orientations per dwelling | |
52 | Detached house: Three façades Area of dwelling: 80 m2 Three orientations per dwelling | |
53 | Single house: Four façades Area: 115 m2 Four orientations per dwelling |
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Period | Mean of Mean | Mean of Maximum | Mean of Minimum |
---|---|---|---|
Temperatures | Temperatures | Temperatures | |
Summer 2022 | 20.6 | 27.7 | 15.3 |
May 2022 | 17.8 | 23.9 | 12.1 |
June 2022 | 21.4 | 28.2 | 15.8 |
July 2022 | 23.7 | 31.4 | 17.5 |
August 2022 | 23.3 | 30.8 | 16.5 |
September 2022 | 18.8 | 24.9 | 13.7 |
Neighbourhood | H (m) | SCR (0–1) | FSR (0–1) | TCR (0–1) | VCR (0–1) | Roof Albedo (0–1) | Wall Albedo (0–1) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
N1 | 25.45 | 0.34 | 0.57 | 0.05 | 0.25 | 0.45 | 0.6 |
N2 | 10.38 | 0.17 | 0.18 | 0.02 | 0.47 | 0.29 | 0.63 |
N3 | 18.09 | 0.27 | 0.35 | 0.01 | 0.08 | 0.41 | 0.51 |
N4 | 12.51 | 0.1 | 0.12 | 0.01 | 0.63 | 0.45 | 0.66 |
N5 | 21.48 | 0.27 | 0.29 | 0.05 | 0.3 | 0.52 | 0.57 |
N6 | 18.18 | 0.28 | 0.15 | 0.02 | 0.28 | 0.2 | 0.44 |
N7 | 13.49 | 0.19 | 0.07 | 0.01 | 0.22 | 0.47 | 0.72 |
N8 | 16.23 | 0.28 | 0.42 | 0.02 | 0.25 | 0.49 | 0.8 |
N9 | 9.59 | 0.2 | 0.23 | 0.04 | 0.31 | 0.5 | 0.6 |
N10 | 15.27 | 0.28 | 0.42 | 0.03 | 0.28 | 0.29 | 0.45 |
N11 | 24.18 | 0.21 | 0.36 | 0.05 | 0.3 | 0.56 | 0.66 |
N12 | 21.84 | 0.24 | 0.36 | 0.03 | 0.4 | 0.53 | 0.6 |
Energy Regulation Built Period | Ufaçade a Uroof (W/m2K) | Uglass (W/m2K) | Airtightness d Flow Coefficient (1 Pa) | Solar Shading System | Ventilation Schedule |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
No regulation | 1.39 | 5.7 b | Walls = 0.0001 kg/s m2 | Blinds with low | Calculated natural |
<1980 | 2.9 | Windows = 0.00014 kg/sm | reflectivity slats | ventilation: 24 h | |
CT-79 | 0.73 | 3.5 b | Walls = 0.0001 kg/s m2 | Blinds with medium | Calculated natural |
1980–2006 | 0.55 | Windows = 0.00014 kg/sm | reflectivity slats | ventilation: 24 h | |
CTE 2006 | 0.58 | 3.5 c | Walls = 0.00004 kg/s m2 | Blinds with medium | Calculated natural |
2006–2019 | 0.29 | Windows = 0.00006 kg/sm | reflectivity slats | ventilation: 24 h and 9:00–23:59: 0.63 ac/h | |
CTE 2019 | 0.30 | 1.7 c | Walls = 0.00001 kg/s m2 | Blinds with medium | Calculated natural |
>2020 | 0.19 | Windows = 0.00001 kg/sm | reflectivity slats | ventilation: 24 h and 9:00–23:59: 0.4 ac/h |
Component | U (W/m2K) | Description | Detail |
---|---|---|---|
Facade Scenario 1 Scenario 2 Scenario 3 | 0.30 | Ventilated façade: 12 cm of insulation ceramic tiles (finishing material) | |
Roof Scenario 1 | 0.19 | Flat roof or pitched roof: 16 cm of insulation tiles or gravel (finishing material) | |
Roof Scenario 2 | 0.16 | Flat roof: 20 cm of insulation gravel (finishing material) | |
Roof Scenario 3 | 0.21 | Extensive green roof: 14 cm of insulation 15 cm of soil (LAI 2.7) grass (finishing material) |
Parameters | Beta Coefficients | 95%
Conf. Interval | p-Value |
---|---|---|---|
Built period | |||
No regulation period | 0 (Ref.) | ||
CT-79 period | −0.72 | (−0.80 to −0.64) | <0.001 |
CTE 2006 period | −12.18 | (−12.3 to −12.1) | <0.001 |
CTE 2019 period | −12.70 | (−13.3 to −12.1) | <0.001 |
Floor level | |||
Top floor | 0 (Ref.) | ||
Intermediate floor | −5.37 | (−5.46 to −5.28) | <0.001 |
Main orientation | |||
S, SW and W | 0 (Ref.) | ||
E and SE | −3.76 | (−3.86 to −3.67) | <0.001 |
N, NE and NW | −4.75 | (−4.83 to −4.66) | <0.001 |
Number of orientations of the dwelling | |||
1 orientation | 0 (Ref.) | ||
>1 orientation (higher possibilities of ventilation) | −7.54 | (−7.66 to −7.41) | <0.001 |
Window area | |||
>4 m2 | 0 (Ref.) | ||
≥4 m2 | −2.92 | (−3.03 to −2.80) | <0.001 |
Dwelling area | |||
<60 m2 | 0 (Ref.) | ||
61–89 m2 | −0.51 | (−0.35 to −0.65) | <0.001 |
>90 m2 | −0.89 | (−0.74 to −1.04) | <0.001 |
Typology | Representativeness | Current Scenario | Scenario 1 | Reduction | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
n | % | %IOH | HE * | %IOH | HE * | %IOH | HE * | |
11 | 33, 471 | 34.5 | 8.33 | 305.78 | 1.32 | 48.4 | 7.01 | 257.39 |
12 | 11,933 | 12.3 | 20.15 | 740.01 | 4.80 | 176.3 | 15.35 | 563.71 |
13 | 1261 | 1.3 | 3.48 | 127.8 | 1.67 | 61.28 | 1.81 | 66.52 |
14 | 388 | 0.4 | 8.77 | 322.15 | 7.82 | 287.24 | 0.95 | 34.91 |
15 | 97 | 0.1 | 19.07 | 700.4 | 2.48 | 91.05 | 16.59 | 609.35 |
21 | 23,963 | 24.7 | 10.46 | 384.26 | 2.47 | 90.63 | 8.00 | 293.62 |
22 | 1552 | 1.6 | 4.83 | 177.21 | 3.43 | 125.78 | 1.4 | 51.42 |
31 | 3977 | 4.1 | 13.99 | 513.66 | 4.80 | 176.32 | 9.19 | 337.34 |
32 | 4559 | 4.7 | 6.81 | 250.11 | 0.89 | 32.67 | 5.92 | 217.45 |
33 | 194.04 | 0.2 | 37.19 | 1365.75 | 0.52 | 18.96 | 36.68 | 1346.8 |
34 | 2328 | 2.4 | 15.81 | 580.66 | 5.04 | 185.2 | 10.77 | 395.46 |
51 | 1455 | 1.5 | 9.27 | 340.47 | 3.52 | 129.27 | 5.75 | 211.19 |
52 | 1746 | 1.8 | 12.65 | 464.37 | 2.00 | 73.5 | 10.64 | 390.88 |
53 | 388 | 0.4 | 11.00 | 404.01 | 2.38 | 87.53 | 8.62 | 316.49 |
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Arriazu-Ramos, A.; Pons Izquierdo, J.J.; Ramos Ruiz, G.; Sánchez-Ostiz, A.; Monge-Barrio, A. Facing Climate Change in a Temperate European City: Urban-Scale Diagnosis of Indoor Overheating and Adaptation Strategies for Residential Buildings. Buildings 2024, 14, 1423. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14051423
Arriazu-Ramos A, Pons Izquierdo JJ, Ramos Ruiz G, Sánchez-Ostiz A, Monge-Barrio A. Facing Climate Change in a Temperate European City: Urban-Scale Diagnosis of Indoor Overheating and Adaptation Strategies for Residential Buildings. Buildings. 2024; 14(5):1423. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14051423
Chicago/Turabian StyleArriazu-Ramos, Ainhoa, Juan José Pons Izquierdo, Germán Ramos Ruiz, Ana Sánchez-Ostiz, and Aurora Monge-Barrio. 2024. "Facing Climate Change in a Temperate European City: Urban-Scale Diagnosis of Indoor Overheating and Adaptation Strategies for Residential Buildings" Buildings 14, no. 5: 1423. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14051423