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Article

Sand Mining Tailings as Supplementary Cementitious Material

by
Aline Santana Figueiredo
1,
Augusto Cesar da Silva Bezerra
2,
Laís Cristina Barbosa Costa
3,
Douglas Mol Resende
1,
Luana Drago Kuster
1 and
Ricardo André Fiorotti Peixoto
1,*
1
Department of Civil Engineering, Federal University of Ouro Preto, Ouro Preto 35400-000, MG, Brazil
2
Department of Transports Engineering, Federal Center for Technological Education of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte 30421-169, MG, Brazil
3
Department of Civil Engineering, Federal University of Ceará, Russas 62900-420, CE, Brazil
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Buildings 2024, 14(8), 2408; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14082408 (registering DOI)
Submission received: 6 July 2024 / Revised: 26 July 2024 / Accepted: 30 July 2024 / Published: 4 August 2024
(This article belongs to the Section Building Materials, and Repair & Renovation)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Sand mining tailing (ST) is a byproduct of the sand extraction of submerged pits, a process which is carried out to obtain aggregates for civil construction. This tailing consists of fine particles from the pulp washing process, usually disposed of in decantation ponds. The present study proposes ST as a supplementary cementitious material (SCM) for Portland cement concrete, thereby reintegrating this tailing into the production chain. In this sense, ST was characterized, and concretes containing 2% to 14% of cement replacement (%vol) by ST were produced and evaluated. STs showed natural fineness, particles with angular morphology, a significant amount of kaolinite, and 36% amorphous content. ST concretes exhibited a compressive strength of up to 57.9 MPa at 28 days under 7.0% of cement replacement, 38.8% higher than the reference. Consequently, only 5.6 kg/m3 of Portland cement was required to attain 1.0 MPa, representing a 33.6% reduction compared to the reference. The ultrasonic pulse velocities measured in ST concrete with 2.0%, 4.0%, 7.0%, and 14.0% cement replacement were 3.0%, 6.1%, 9.3%, and 6.6% higher than the reference, respectively. These results indicate enhanced mechanical properties, improved matrix uniformity, and superior environmental performance across all SCM levels compared to the reference, with optimal efficiency observed at 7.0% ST content.

1. Introduction

In 2023, 382 million tons of sand were produced in Brazil [1], and approximately 50 billion tons per year is currently produced worldwide, an average of 18 kg/person/day [2,3]. Sand is widely applied in industry, including in water filtration, glass manufacturing, electronics, household items, and mainly in civil and heavy construction [3,4]. Concrete, the most widely used construction material globally, comprises approximately 40% sand by volume [3]. The demand for sand is high and continuously growing, given the imperative demand for infrastructure to supply a predicted population increase of 24% between 2020 and 2050 [2,5,6].
The processing of extracting sand from a submerged pit involves washing to remove impurities and fractions without economic use and subsequent classification according to granulometric ranges for industrial applications [5,7]. This process generates fine tailings (ϕ ≤ 75 µm) that are stored in settling ponds, potentially constituting up to 20% of the deposit’s total production [7,8]. The deposition areas for the generated sand tailings occupy large areas, leading to erosion and adverse effects on local biodiversity [9]. Thus, with no added value in the industry, sand mining tailings are a major environmental problem deriving from sand extraction [5,10,11].
Several authors emphasize the urgency of intensifying the links between waste management and construction material production, addressing the escalating demand for a circular economy with reduced carbon emissions [12]. This demand leads to interest in more sustainable strategies for producing cement-based composites, driven by the substantial energy consumption associated with Portland cement production [13,14]. Furthermore, this process accounts for 5% to 8% of the global CO2 emissions, as well as for the severe extraction of non-renewable natural resources [15].
Recent studies have reported on the enhanced technological properties of concrete by applying industrial process tailings as supplementary cementitious materials. The approximate replacement of up to 20% of cement by fine tailings such as steel slag, iron ore tailings, calcined clay, and ornamental stone waste improved the cement-based composites’ workability in the fresh state, the mechanical strength, and durability. This effect was achieved mainly due to the increased quantity of fine particles in the matrix, as well as the consequent refinement of the pore system [16,17,18,19,20,21]. There is also evidence that alumina-rich SCMs increase the uptake of Al by C-S-H and the content of hydrated calcium aluminates, compounds known for their chemical and thermic resistance [22,23]. Juenger and Siddique [17] found a higher portlandite content and C-S-H formation on the surface of SCM particles in cement matrices with quartz filler, indicating an increase in the hydration degree of the cement due to the presence of these materials, and their role as possible nucleation spots.
Carvalho et al. [24] analyzed industrial and mining waste as SCMs and aggregates in the production of concretes with high particle packing and reduced CO2 emissions. The concrete with the best mechanical performance had 85% recycled material in its composition and presented a compressive strength of 98.9 MPa for a cement consumption of 344 kg/m3, resulting in a binder intensity of 3.48 kg/m3/MPa. The matrix with the highest eco-efficiency contained 95% recycled material in relation to the total volume of concrete, and presented a compressive strength of 50.3 MPa for a cement consumption of 117.1 kg/m3, resulting in a binder intensity of 2.33 kg/m3/MPa. Regarding environmental performance, Özkılıç et al. [25] observed that up to 10% of ceramic waste powder did not affect the compressive strength and load-carrying abilities of reinforced concrete beams. Therefore, this alternative can be deemed as an economical and environmentally friendly option, potentially lowering CO2 emissions and energy consumption.
Sand mining tailing is still underexplored as concerns its incorporation in cement matrices. In one of the few studies aimed at understanding its properties, Kallel et al. [21] reported an improved resistance to sulfates and chlorides in Portland cement mortars by adding sand tailings calcined at 800 °C for a cement replacement of up to 10%. The authors concluded that the better resistance and lower weight loss occurred due to the pozzolanic activity presented by the calcined residue, leading to a pore system refinement. Some calcined clays have shown similar properties as sand tailings, as presented by Du and Pang [26], who assessed the properties of high-performance concrete using calcined clay and limestone as partial replacements for cement. Their findings indicate that up to 45% substitution maintains similar mechanical properties and demonstrates a superior durability. The mechanical properties of concrete with the blended binder are lower than those of the reference in the first 03 days, but they increased and became comparable from 07 days onward, demonstrating pozzolanic activity.
There are several works that have assessed the properties of calcined clays for cement replacement; however, research aimed at obtaining SCMs without the energy consumption that is related to calcination or milling is still needed. Addressing this knowledge gap, the current study assesses the feasibility of applying raw sand mining tailings as supplementary cementitious materials. In this sense, the physical, chemical, mineralogical, and morphological properties of STs were evaluated for cement replacement levels of 2% to 14% (by volume) in sustainable concrete. Seeking parameterization for the ST properties, two other materials with already known properties were characterized; these were quartzite waste (QT) and metakaolin (MK). QT is a filler from ornamental stone cuttings and polishings and is predominantly composed of quartz (SiO2) [27]. MK is a commercial product with a silico-aluminous and predominantly amorphous composition, used as pozzolan in Portland cement matrices. The present study complies with the principles of circular economy and proposes a strategy to reduce the environmental impacts from sand mining tailings’ disposal and Portland cement consumption.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Materials

This research used a Brazilian high-early-age-strength Portland cement CP-V (ASTM Type III equivalent). This cement was selected due to its low content of mineral admixtures (0–5% of limestone filler) [27,28]. Natural aggregates, quartz river sand (specific gravity—2.67 g/cm3; bulk density—1.51 g/cm3; and maximum aggregate size—4.8 mm) and gneiss gravel (specific gravity—2.56 g/cm3; bulk density—1.54 g/cm3; and maximum aggregate size—9.5 mm) were used as fine and coarse aggregates, respectively. Figure 1 shows the particle size distribution of these aggregates. Both aggregates fall within the particle size ranges recommended by the ASTM C33 standard [29]. Potable water sourced from the local supply system was employed for producing the cement-based composites.
The sand mining tailing (ST) originated from a submerged pit-type deposit situated in Rio Grande do Sul state, Brazil. The ST, in the form of yellowish pulp, was air-dried for 72 h, followed by a process of oven-drying for 48 h (100 ± 5 °C). Metakaolin (MK) was utilized without further treatment. The quartzite tailing (QT) originated from an ornamental stone waste yard operated by Vertuos Sílicas company, located in Três Corações-MG, Minas Gerais, Brazil. The quartzite sample underwent comminution in a planetary mill (PM100—Retsch, Haan, Germany,) using an YZrO2 jar and spheres for 30 min at 400 rpm to achieve a particle size distribution similar to that of the ST and MK samples.

2.2. Characterization of Portland Cement and Suplementary Cementitious Materials

Portland cement and supplementary cementitious materials were characterized with respect to their physical, chemical, mineralogical, and morphological properties. The volumes of the samples used for each test adhered strictly to the standards and tolerances specified for each piece of equipment employed. The physical characterization was conducted in terms of specific gravity [30], bulk density [31], and particle size distribution (laser diffraction (BETTERSIZER 2000®—Bettersize Instruments, Costa Mesa, CA, USA), with distilled water serving as the dispersion medium for SCMs and isopropyl alcohol for CP-V).
Quantitative chemical analysis was carried out using energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence (XRF—Epsilon 3x—Malvern Panalytical, Malvern, UK) for samples with particle sizes of less than 45 μm. The mineralogical composition was determined through X-ray diffraction (XRD—D2 Phaser—Bruker, Billerica, MA, USA) utilizing CuKα radiation within a 2θ scanning range of 6–70° with a step of 0.018° and a 1 s/step rate. Additionally, 20% lithium fluoride (griceite) by mass was added to the samples to quantify their amorphous content using the Rietveld method (Bruker Diffrac Topas V6).
For thermogravimetric and differential thermal analysis (TGA/DTA DTG-60H—Shimadzu, Kyoto, Japan), heating was conducted from 25 °C to 1000 °C at a rate of 10 °C/min, with data discretized at 5 °C/min intervals between 400 °C and 600 °C and between 900 °C and 1000 °C, with an inert atmosphere of N2. Samples with particle sizes of less than 45 μm were utilized. Morphological analysis was carried out using scanning electron microscopy (SEM—Vega 3 —Tescan, Brno, Czech Republic) operating under high vacuum conditions, capturing secondary electron (SE) images at 20 kV, with the sample surface metalized with gold (Q150—Quorum Tech, Lewes, UK).

2.3. Suplementary Cementitious Materials’ Hydration Kinetics Analysis

The cementitious potential of ST, QT, and natural pozzolan MK was assessed using calorimetry on cement pastes incorporated by the proposed SCM. These pastes included volume replacement levels of SCMs of 2%, 4%, 7%, and 14%, as well as having a water-to-cement ratio (0.55) consistent with the concretes under study. The analyses were conducted using an isothermal calorimeter (I-Cal 2000 HPC—Calmetrix, Arlington, TX, USA) equipped with an Intramix device. Data acquisition spanned 72 h from the onset of mixing, with the base temperature set at 23 °C, and utilized the CalCommander v.2.01 software).

2.4. Mixture Design and Concrete Characterization

The dosage for the reference concrete targeted the strength class C35 (35 MPa), following the IPT/EPUSP method [32], aided by computational software [33]. This method prioritizes minimizing water consumption to achieve a specified slump by optimizing the proportion of available aggregates.
The reference mixture comprised the proportion 1:2.4:2.7:0.55 (cement, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate, and water) by mass and a cement consumption of 350 kg/m3. Concretes with supplementary cementitious materials were fabricated using identical parameters, with cement being replaced by quartzite, metakaolin, and sand tailings. The consistency was set at a slump of 90 ± 10 mm to produce concrete with an equivalent workability [34,35]. For this purpose, a superplasticizing admixture based on polycarboxylate ether (PCE—PowerFlow 4001—MC Bauchemie, Vargem Grande Paulista, Brazil) was dosed by cement mass in each mixture, varying between 0.3% and 1.8%.
The cement replacement by the investigated fines was conducted in volume to ensure the equivalence of filling in the matrix among additions with different bulk densities. The levels were determined based on the maximum suggested by the metakaolin manufacturer (14%). Accordingly, the values adopted in this study were 2%, 4%, 7%, and 14% for each proposed supplementary cementitious material. Table 1 presents the proportions of each constituent in the mixtures. The code of each mixture comprises the SCM (ST, MK, or QT) followed by the corresponding percentage (02, 04, 07, or 14).
To characterize the concretes, reduced cylindrical specimens of 50 mm × 100 mm (diameter × height) were produced [36]. The mixing, molding, and curing of the specimens was carried out in accordance with ASTM C192 [37]. They were cured in a moist chamber (25 ± 2 °C; 90 ± 5% relative humidity) for 25 days and then underwent a drying protocol at 60 °C for 72 h to standardize the condition of the samples before analysis [38]. The maximum drying temperature was limited to 60 °C to ensure the integrity of the microstructure of the cement-based composite [39]. The concrete characterization program for their physical and mechanical properties followed the current appropriate standards to determine density, water absorption, and voids [40]; ultrasonic pulse velocity [41]; compressive strength [42]; and splitting tensile strength [43]. The compressive and tensile strengths were obtained in an EMIC DL 20,000 hydraulic press with a load cell of 200 kN. The ultrasonic pulse velocity test was performed using a TICO tester (Proceq, Schweitzenbach, Switzerland), emitting longitudinal pulses at 54 Hz.
The concrete’s environmental performance was assessed through its respective cement intensity (CI). This parameter is an index that expresses the amount of cement required to provide 1 Mpa in a compressive strength test, as presented in Equation (2) [44]. Consequently, a smaller CI value signifies a higher eco-efficiency of the cement-based composite.
C I = b c
b = cement consumption (kg/m3); c = compressive strength at 28 days (MPa)

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Physical and Morphological Characterization

Table 2 presents the SCM specific gravity and bulk densities. The sand tailings, metakaolin, and quartzite tailings exhibit similar specific gravity and bulk density values. This similarity is related to their chemical composition, which, as will be discussed below, predominantly consists of silicon and aluminum oxides.
Figure 2 presents the particle size distribution of the SCMs. The sand tailing (d90 = 25.5 μm) is naturally finer than CP-V (d90 = 37.5 μm), not requiring mechanical processing to adapt its physical properties. This observation suggests a significant potential for incorporating these tailings in eco-efficient cement-based composites. MK exhibited a d90 value of 53.7 μm, the highest among the tested materials. Following the comminution process, the QT sample achieved a d90 value of 18.5 μm, which was 27% lower than that of ST. ASTM C618 specifies a limit for fly ash and natural or calcined pozzolans, in which 66% of particles must be less than 45 μm [45]. Consequently, all materials investigated meet the criteria for application as SCMs regarding particle size distribution.
The morphological analysis (Figure 3) revealed that ST particles present well-defined volumetric surfaces, lack edges, and exhibit smaller dimensions compared to QT and MK, consistent with the particle size distribution results. QT particles exhibit angular surfaces with distinct edges and fewer volumetric particles, potentially resulting in their characterization with a lower d90, attributed to the limitations of the laser diffraction technique. MK displays larger grains with angular surfaces and fines adhering to the surface.
SEM images reveal ST particles with dimensions close to 20.0 μm, exhibiting a uniform distribution with minimal agglomeration of fine particles. MK particles have dimensions of approximately 55.0 μm, displaying a less uniform distribution and more noticeable agglomerations of fines. In the QT sample after milling, most of the particles present with dimensions up to 10.0 μm, and some particles measure around 30.0 μm; particles are predominantly angular shaped with sharp edges. This result is also in agreement with the particle size distribution, given that the maximum particle size of QT is 38.2 μm and its d90 is 18.5 μm. The particle surfaces appear rough and laminated, indicating well-oriented crystallographic planes and a likely lower reactivity [46].
Particles with angular shapes demand more water due to their greater surface area and they provide less grain packing due to increased internal friction. Consequently, the workability reduces, and additional cement is necessary to achieve the desired compressive strength [47,48,49]. Thus, considering the particle size distribution and its morphology, ST presents better characteristics among the SCMs evaluated for obtaining more workable cement-based composites under similar conditions and, consequently, with lower water consumption.

3.2. Chemical and Mineralogical Characterization

Sand tailing, quartzite tailing, and metakaolin comprise mainly silicon oxide (SiO2) and aluminum oxide (Al2O3) (Table 3). ST has an aluminous silica composition, which indicates similarity with natural clays [21,26,50,51]. The presence of metals such as lead and mercury, among others, was not identified in the ST samples, indicating safety in their use as SCMs.
The main mineralogical structures identified in ST, QT, and MK through XRD analysis (Figure 4) are quartz (SiO2) and kaolinite [Al2(Si2O5)(OH)4]. The Rietveld refinement revealed amorphous contents of 59.5% (MK), 35.7% (ST), and 14.3% (QT).
The quartz peaks in the QT sample are well-defined and of great intensity, suggesting a highly crystalline structure that may limit its effectiveness as a supplementary cementitious material. In contrast, the quartz peaks in the ST and MK samples appear more discrete with lower intensity, suggesting a potential reactivity of these materials as SCMs [52]. The identified amorphous contents for supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) also indicate their potential reactivity. ST primarily consists of silica (51.1%) and alumina (32.3%), distributed within the 35.7% amorphous, reactive materials favorable to increased hydrate formation [53]. MK exhibited an amorphous content of 59.5%, with silica (54.9%) and alumina (37.1%) contents confirming the anticipated presence of metakaolinite in this material.

3.3. Thermogravimetric Analysis

Figure 5 presents the thermogravimetric analysis of the SCMs. ST and MK presented similar temperatures of thermal decomposition, which is consistent with the chemical and mineralogical results in terms of kaolinite content. ST displayed a total mass loss of 11.71% within the temperature range from 25 °C to 1000 °C. Additionally, two prominent mass loss bands were identified, accompanied by an endothermic peak in the thermodifferential curve. The initial range corresponds to temperatures between 25 °C and 250 °C, where mass losses of 2.42% (ST) and 1.55% (MK) occur due to free water evaporation, including water adsorbed on the surface of the particles [54,55]. In the subsequent range, a mass loss of 7.00% is observed in the ST sample between 360 °C and 545 °C, linked to a notable endothermic peak near 450 °C. This phenomenon corresponds to the dehydroxylation of kaolinite [54,56].
The MK sample exhibited a mass loss of approximately 2.30% in the same range, between 360 °C and 560 °C, accompanied by a less intense endothermic event. This finding agrees with the XRD results, indicating that parts of the kaolinite present in this material were amorphized during the calcination process, leaving behind only the residual content of this mineral [57,58].
ST presented a mass loss of 1.16% between 545 and 925 °C, while MK similarly lost 2.40% of its mass between 560 and 940 °C. Heating temperatures between 350 and 950 °C include all typical temperature ranges for the dehydroxylation of clay minerals such as kaolinite and illite [56]. Beyond 925 °C, both samples (ST and MK) did not experience significant mass loss. At this stage, the formation of ‘precursors’ (γ-alumina or aluminum-silicon spinel and amorphous silicates) of the high temperature phases (mullite and cristobalite) occurs [54,57,59].
The thermal decomposition of QT (Figure 5c) exhibited a gradual mass loss of 1.79% up to 1000 °C, accompanied by a slightly pronounced endothermic peak at 563 °C. This process involves the conversion of the quartz-α phase into quartz-β, between 450 °C and 600 °C [54,57,58,60]. According to Földvári [61], the structural transition of quartz occurs at 573 °C. Typically, variations of approximately 50 °C are attributed to factors such as the genesis or origin, shape, and the temperature of crystal formation [60,62]. A mass loss of 0.14% occurred between 860 °C and 920 °C, attributed to the dehydroxylation of muscovite [61]. The correlation of chemical analysis with thermogravimetric and thermodifferential analysis indicates that the quartzite tailing presents low reactivity due to the predominance of the quartz mineral.

3.4. Hydration Kinetics Analysis of Portland Cement Pastes with SCMs

The evolution of the heat of hydration and the thermal energy accumulated in the first 72 h for the pastes with the addition of ST, MK, and QT are represented in Figure 6a–f.
Pastes ST02 and ST04 exhibited a similar behavior to the reference paste, with a slight anticipation in calcium sulfate depletion, as indicated by the interval dividing the main peak into primary and secondary peaks (Figure 6a) [63]. An increase in the secondary peak, associated with aluminate reactions [64,65], highlights the reactivity of the aluminates present in the ST composition. On the other hand, pastes ST07 and ST14 displayed a reduction in the main peak, accompanied by a proportional increase in the induction period and a consequent delay in hydration. This result suggests that as the cement content in a specific volume of fines decreases, there is more intermolecular space available for hydrate formation within the matrix [52]. Consequently, despite the delay in initiating hydration reactions, there is an eventual increase in the degree of cement hydration by the end of the process. The curve flattens, yet a rightward shift and a proportional increase in accumulated energy at the end of the 72 h hydration period are observed, particularly in ST14 [66]. This behavior is consistent across all pastes with 7% and 14% cement replacement by SCMs.
Similarly to pastes MK07 and MK14, the observation of maximum heat release at the peak associated with secondary reactions of aluminates in pastes with equivalent ST content implies that a portion of their amorphous content may comprise alumina (Al2O3) [67]. The MK04 paste displayed a unique behavior compared to all others, characterized by a decrease in the total energy released within the initial 72 h and a significant flattening of the main peak. Additionally, a rightward shift of this peak and a reduction in the total energy accumulated over 72 h were observed. This result indicates a reduced synergy of hydration reactions, likely attributable to an inadequate quantity of reactive or fine particulate material replacing Portland cement. However, MK contains a high proportion of amorphous particles, suggesting a significant reactive potential at later stages of hydration [67]. Moreover, the initial pozzolanic action reduces heat release in the initial hours, thereby mitigating the formation of microcracks in the matrix and consequently enhancing its durability [68].
Pastes QT07, QT14, and MK14 presented a higher release of energy and acceleration of hydration than the reference paste. These phenomena are primarily associated with hydration reactions that contribute to the setting and development of initial strength during the acceleration period [63]. Due to the high contents of SiO2 and Al2O3 in the MK composition, the acceleration of the initial hydration of the cement was directly proportional to the content of the MK addition, attributed to the increased formation of ettringite and monosulfate [69]. The observed phenomenon in the pastes containing 7% and 14% of QT is attributed to nucleation resulting from the fineness of the material, with 90% of its particles having sizes smaller than 18.5μm [63]. Thus, the addition of QT provides a greater surface area for the reaction to develop, with the maximum level of efficiency achieved with a content of 7% [68].

3.5. Concrete Characterization

As shown in Figure 7, the specific gravity of the concretes with the supplementary cementitious materials did not vary significantly from the reference mixture. Since the concretes have identical proportions of Portland cement, aggregates, and water, it is reasonable that their specific gravities exhibit values close to each other.
A slight variation was observed in water absorption and void index, except in ST14 concrete, with 42.9% and 38.8% lower parameters than the reference, respectively. For 4%, 7%, and 14% cement replacement by SCM, the treatments with ST presented a higher specific gravity, a lower void index, and a lower water absorption than treatments with the same amount of quartzite tailing or metakaolin. Given the lack of significant variation in specific gravity, it should be considered that the iron and aluminum oxides present in ST can be incorporated into the structure of hydrates (C-S-H), thereby enhancing mechanical properties, durability, and reducing the permeability of the matrices through pore system refinement [22,23].
Consistent with the calorimetry results, MK04 exhibited water absorption and void index values that are 21.7% and 20.7% higher than the reference, respectively. These properties are related to the significant reduction in hydration energy for 4% cement replacement by MK. The high values of void index and water absorption may be attributed to the lower amount of hydration products generated in this matrix [70].
The variation in QT contents did not significantly change the concrete water absorption and void index results, consistent with the previous analysis, indicating the absence of precipitation of additional hydration products in these matrices. However, given that this tailing presents low reactivity, no impairment in the performance of matrices with higher levels of this admixture suggests the filling of voids by fines, favored by particle packing [24].
The ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) results (Figure 8) indicate that all dosages produced good quality concretes, according to the classification proposed by Saint Pierre [71], except for the 2% substitution content. The ST04, ST07, ST14, and QT07 matrices presented the highest ultrasonic pulse, respectively, at 6.1%, 9.3%, and 7.8% superior to the reference mixture. This result suggests a more sound matrix due to an efficient interaction between the SCM and Portland cement [71,72]. Additionally, the concretes with 4%, 7%, and 14% MK and QT showed lower average VPU values than those with the same levels of ST [71,72].
The variation in QT content in concrete did not cause considerable changes in VPU values overall. However, a better performance for QT07 is noticeable compared to other concretes with this material, indicating interaction with Portland cement throughout hydration. Considering the progressive reduction in cement content, the VPU results corroborate the calorimetry findings. Similar ultrasonic pulse velocities between matrices with replacement levels of 4% to 14% demonstrate a greater degree of hydration of the cement, proportional to the reduction in its consumption.
All mixtures incorporating supplementary cementitious materials presented compressive strengths equal to or greater than the reference mixture (Figure 9). Notably, the compressive strength of concretes increased by an average of 22.6% and 20.5% with 7% and 14% of SCM, respectively. This result aligns with previous analyses, suggesting an interaction between SCMs and Portland cement particles through nucleation and hydrate generation [17,52], as well as pore filling [73].
Similar to the calorimetry, void index, and water absorption analyses findings, the MK04 concrete exhibited an inferior mechanical performance than the other concretes, further highlighting the absence or insufficiency of compensatory elements for the reduction in cement consumption.
All mixtures with the ST mineral admixture presented a superior compressive strength than the reference. Among these, the ST07 concrete exhibited the highest average compressive strength (28% higher than the reference), which is also in agreement with the ultrasonic pulse velocity results. Several factors contribute to this result, as follows: (i) more efficient filling of voids depending on the morphology and particle size distribution; (ii) incorporation of aluminum oxide into the C-S-H structure; and (iii) formation of hydrates originating from slow reactions between portlandite and ST [22,23,73].
The mixtures ST07 and S714 also presented a superior tensile strength (5.5% and 8.3% improvement) to the reference, aligning with previous physical and mechanical results. Across all cement replacement levels, the QT concretes exhibited the lowest tensile strength values, indicating less interaction between the mineral admixture and the cement hydration products. Notably, mixture QT02 had a tensile strength 22% lower than the reference. This observation may be related to the QT’s lower amorphous content and laminar morphology observed in the SEM, which could weaken the matrix and the transition zone between the paste and the aggregates [74].
The results of cement intensity for concrete indicate a reduction in cement intensity as the content of SCMs added to the matrix increases, with particular emphasis on replacement levels of 7% and 14% (Figure 10).
Except for the 2% replacement content, matrices with ST exhibited the lowest cement demand per MPa among the other materials. The cement intensity was reduced by up to 33.3% compared to the reference, with 5.60 kg/m3/MPa for a 7% replacement level, which was also 8.1% and 7.6% lower than MK07 and QT07, respectively. In the literature, concretes with significantly low binder intensities are reported, reaching values lower than 3.0 kg/m3/MPa [24,75]. However, these are typically concrete mixtures dosed with specific methods for cement consumption lower than 250 kg/m3. Such matrices achieve cement consumption of less than 90 kg/m3 and compressive strengths surpassing 60 MPa [24]. Conventional concretes present a higher cement intensity due to the requirements for minimum cement consumption by current standards, suggesting a minimum value of 5.0 kg/m3/MPa for strengths below 50 MPa in concretes incorporating SCMs [75]. All matrices in this study were designed with an approximate cement consumption of 350 kg/m3 without employing a particle packing method. The enhancement in mechanical strength for all concretes—except MK04—exceeded that of the reference concrete. The reference concrete’s strength class is C35, and replacing 7% of cement with ST resulted in a C50 concrete, which enhances environmental performance without sacrificing mechanical competence.
The processing of SCMs also significantly influences the environmental performance of concrete. The grinding protocol applied to QT diminishes its eco-efficiency due to energy consumption [76]. Similarly, MK undergoes a calcination process at temperatures ranging between 650 °C and 900 °C [76]. ST presents a natural fineness and a relatively heterogeneous morphological structure [77]. The improvement in concrete’s physical and mechanical properties, associated with incorporating tailing requiring low processing energy, highlights the technical, economic, and environmental viability of incorporating ST into Portland cement matrices.

4. Conclusions

This work aimed to evaluate the application of sand tailings as supplementary cementitious materials, compared to quartzite tailings and metakaolin. To this end, the SCMs were characterized for their physical, chemical, mineralogical, and morphological properties, as well as their hydration kinetics. Concretes were then produced by replacing Portland cement with SCMs and they were evaluated for their physical and mechanical properties and environmental performance.
The results obtained demonstrate the technical viability of integrating ST into cement-based composites as a supplementary cementitious material, considering its physical, chemical, mineralogical, and morphological properties, along with its interaction with Portland cement. ST presents 90% of particles below 20.0 μm and thus, does not require the comminution process. ST is naturally finer than commercial mineral admixtures like metakaolin. This characteristic provides an advantage for integrating this tailing into sustainable cement matrices without requiring additional energy consumption.
Overall, concretes incorporating ST presented a superior mechanical performance and physical properties despite MK’s higher amorphous content and recognized reactivity compared to ST. Considering the contrast between samples with MK and QT across all analyses conducted, it can be inferred that favorable characteristics such as particle size, a mainly silica-aluminous composition, and a relatively amorphous content constitute fundamental factors for the performance of ST as an SCM. Furthermore, ST exhibited a balance between the mentioned characteristics and a volumetric morphology, favoring particle nucleation and packing, resulting in a more cohesive matrix with a refined pore structure.
According to the results obtained from concrete characterization, the incorporation of ST in cement matrices is technically feasible. It is important to highlight the necessity for future studies concerning the durability and life cycle analysis of this material. The superior performance was observed for a 7% replacement of Portland cement with ST, indicating the potential to decrease Portland cement content by 33.3%, while maintaining the same compressive strength as conventional concrete at 28 days.
Hence, it is recommended to apply sand tailing as a supplementary cementitious material (SCM) for cement matrices, replacing 7% and 14% of the Portland cement volume to produce more durable and sustainable structural elements. Moreover, using ST as a supplementary cementitious material in cement-based composites is an environmentally appropriate reinsertion of sand mining tailing in the production chain.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, A.S.F., A.C.d.S.B. and R.A.F.P.; methodology, A.S.F., A.C.d.S.B. and R.A.F.P.; validation, A.S.F., A.C.d.S.B., L.C.B.C., L.D.K. and R.A.F.P.; formal analysis, A.S.F., L.C.B.C., A.C.d.S.B. and R.A.F.P.; investigation, A.S.F., A.C.d.S.B., L.C.B.C., L.D.K. and R.A.F.P.; resources, A.S.F., A.C.d.S.B. and R.A.F.P.; writing—original draft preparation, A.S.F., A.C.d.S.B., L.C.B.C., D.M.R. and R.A.F.P.; writing—review and editing, A.S.F., L.C.B.C., L.D.K., D.M.R. and R.A.F.P.; supervision, A.C.d.S.B. and R.A.F.P.; project administration, A.C.d.S.B. and R.A.F.P.; funding acquisition, R.A.F.P. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This work was supported by the Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel under research project no. 88882.459549/2019-01. We gratefully acknowledge the Ministry of Science, Technology, Innovation and Communications; the National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq) (403545/2020-0; 304108/2022-7); and the agencies CAPES (88882.459549/2019-01), and FAPEMIG (RED-00191-23) for providing financial support.

Data Availability Statement

The data used in this research have been properly cited and reported in the main text.

Acknowledgments

We are grateful for the infrastructure and collaboration of the Research Group on Solid Waste—RECICLOS—CNPq and Sustainable and Innovative Materials–Lab-MIS. We also gratefully acknowledge VERTUOS S.A. for the support.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 1. Particle size distribution of natural aggregates.
Figure 1. Particle size distribution of natural aggregates.
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Figure 2. Raw and processed ST; MK; raw and processed QT; and Portland cement particle size distribution.
Figure 2. Raw and processed ST; MK; raw and processed QT; and Portland cement particle size distribution.
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Figure 3. SEM images of the studied SCMs. (a) ST; (b); MK; and (c) QT with 3000× magnification.
Figure 3. SEM images of the studied SCMs. (a) ST; (b); MK; and (c) QT with 3000× magnification.
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Figure 4. Diffractograms of supplementary cementitious materials.
Figure 4. Diffractograms of supplementary cementitious materials.
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Figure 5. Simultaneous TGA/DTA thermal analysis of SCMs (25–1000 °C, 10 °C/min).
Figure 5. Simultaneous TGA/DTA thermal analysis of SCMs (25–1000 °C, 10 °C/min).
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Figure 6. Evolution of heat of hydration in the first 36 h of cement pastes with SCMs. (a) ST; (c) MK; (e) QT. Thermal energy accumulated in the first 72 h of hydration. (b) ST; (d) MK; (f) QT.
Figure 6. Evolution of heat of hydration in the first 36 h of cement pastes with SCMs. (a) ST; (c) MK; (e) QT. Thermal energy accumulated in the first 72 h of hydration. (b) ST; (d) MK; (f) QT.
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Figure 7. Concretes’ specific gravity, water absorption, and void index at 28 days.
Figure 7. Concretes’ specific gravity, water absorption, and void index at 28 days.
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Figure 8. Concretes’ ultrasonic pulse velocity results.
Figure 8. Concretes’ ultrasonic pulse velocity results.
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Figure 9. Concretes’ compressive and tensile strength at 28 days.
Figure 9. Concretes’ compressive and tensile strength at 28 days.
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Figure 10. Cement intensity of the concretes.
Figure 10. Cement intensity of the concretes.
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Table 1. Mixture design for concretes.
Table 1. Mixture design for concretes.
MixtureCementSTMKQTSandGravelWaterPCE (% *)Slump (mm)
REF1.00---2.42.70.550.490 ± 10
ST020.980.02--2.42.70.550.690 ± 10
ST040.960.04--2.42.70.550.690 ± 10
ST070.930.07--2.42.70.550.890 ± 10
ST140.860.14--2.42.70.551.890 ± 10
MK020.98-0.02-2.42.70.550.390 ± 10
MK040.96-0.04-2.42.70.550.490 ± 10
MK070.93-0.07-2.42.70.550.590 ± 10
MK140.86-0.14-2.42.70.550.490 ± 10
QT020.98--0.022.42.70.550.490 ± 10
QT040.96--0.042.42.70.550.490 ± 10
QT070.93--0.072.42.70.550.490 ± 10
QT140.86--0.142.42.70.550.490 ± 10
* Dosed by cement mass.
Table 2. Supplementary cementitious materials’ and Portland cement’s physical characterization.
Table 2. Supplementary cementitious materials’ and Portland cement’s physical characterization.
SampleSTQTMKCP-V
Bulk density (g/cm3) [31]0.780.950.640.80
Specific gravity (g/cm3) [30]2.672.662.603.12
Table 3. Chemical composition of supplementary cementitious materials.
Table 3. Chemical composition of supplementary cementitious materials.
SampleCaOSO3SiO2 (%)Al2O3 (%)Fe2O3 (%)TiO2 (%)K2O (%)Others * (%)LOI ** (%)
ST--51.132.32.41.1-1.311.8
MK--54.937.11.91.11.40.92.7
QT--88.09.0--1.21.20.6
CP-V64.33.715.34.83.1--2.16.7
* Total of elements with content below 1.0%. ** Loss on ignition.
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Figueiredo, A.S.; Bezerra, A.C.d.S.; Costa, L.C.B.; Resende, D.M.; Kuster, L.D.; Peixoto, R.A.F. Sand Mining Tailings as Supplementary Cementitious Material. Buildings 2024, 14, 2408. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14082408

AMA Style

Figueiredo AS, Bezerra ACdS, Costa LCB, Resende DM, Kuster LD, Peixoto RAF. Sand Mining Tailings as Supplementary Cementitious Material. Buildings. 2024; 14(8):2408. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14082408

Chicago/Turabian Style

Figueiredo, Aline Santana, Augusto Cesar da Silva Bezerra, Laís Cristina Barbosa Costa, Douglas Mol Resende, Luana Drago Kuster, and Ricardo André Fiorotti Peixoto. 2024. "Sand Mining Tailings as Supplementary Cementitious Material" Buildings 14, no. 8: 2408. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14082408

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