Reconfiguring Community Relational Dynamics Through Revitalizing Rural Ancestral Temples: Insights from Whampoa Village in Guangzhou, China

Abstract

The micro-renewal of rural heritage in urban villages transcends spatial transformation, profoundly altering social structures and relational dynamics. Recent research has emerged concerning the cultural impact of rural revitalization on rural heritage. However, little research has been undertaken regarding the specific mechanisms via which various renewal orientations influence the community. This study focuses on the case of Whampoa Village in Guangzhou, China, specifically highlighting the rehabilitation of its ancestral temples. Utilizing a field–space–society analytical framework, it analyzes how these revitalized ancestral temples enhance community resilience and instigate a reverse reconfiguration of spaces. Moreover, it emphasizes that the varied rehabilitation approach of ancestral temples, by including different social groups, fosters the establishment of new community connections. NGOs and small investors act as the primary catalysts for the preservation and inheritance of cultural heritage. The redevelopment initiative in Whampoa Village has enhanced spatial diversity, thereby reinforcing and transforming existing community structures. Nonetheless, it highlights the potential for spatial inequities arising from capital-driven commercialization in these rural regions. This article seeks to enrich the global database of cultural heritage by including cases from southern China and to contribute to the literature on the preservation of rural cultural assets.

1. Introduction

Rural decline is escalating in numerous countries globally, along with the changing dynamics of urbanization. As a result, rural history faces both challenges and potential for revitalization. In China, ancestral temples serve as important traditional communal spaces within rural cultural heritage. These temples surpass their material form, representing profound cultural and historical legacies. The emergence of rural revitalization projects and following micro-renewal efforts have made the refurbishing, repair, and reinvigoration of ancestral temples essential elements of rural environmental restructuring. The traditional function of ancestor temples as guardians of clan culture is progressively declining, while the integration of contemporary culture and the reconfiguration of their spatial shapes and functions are becoming more pronounced.

Recent studies on ancestral temples have followed two unique paths. One emphasizes the recontextualization of ancestral temples as communal spaces and their significance in social governance [1,2]. The other examines the complex interconnections between ancestral temples and elements such as clan culture, natural ecology, and social structures [3]. This includes various aspects, such as the connections between ancestral temples and beliefs [4], ancestral temples and sacrificial institutions, ancestral temples and geomantic perspectives [5], the transformation of traditional cultural landscapes in ancestral temples during urbanization [6], and reconfigurations in clan systems [7,8,9,10]. These studies have mainly focused on either the physical changes of ancestral temples or their socio-cultural significance. Nevertheless, studies on the adaptation of ancestral temples within rural revitalization frameworks and their impact on community dynamics are few.

Current studies on rural micro-renewal and spatial reconstruction are generally framed within the larger contexts of marketization, counter-urbanization, and globalization. It analyzes rural development through the “post-production” trend and the “multi-functional rural transformation theory” [11,12,13]. This research perspective frequently emphasizes macro-level analysis at the national or regional scale, sometimes neglecting the distinct attributes of individual rural community settings. Insufficient focus has been placed on the research of micro-level factors and their effects on rural heritage and community development.

In analyzing the driving forces of rural revitalization, motivators are often classified into two categories: exogenous and endogenous [14,15,16]. Exogenous drivers are often perceived as forces that exploit rural resources, accelerate rural decline, and may obstruct rural development [17,18,19]. However, during the rural revitalization project, it has been observed that rural heritage, including ancestral temples, has been reinvigorated through various initiatives designed to transform rural spaces and cultivate new community networks within these regions. Consequently, two research questions are formulated:

• How does the revitalization of ancestral temple spaces reconfigure community relationships in urban villages?
• What are the different pathways and impacts of ancestral temple revitalization under different modes on the cultivation of new community relationships?

The aim of this study is to examine how the revitalization of ancestral temple spaces boosts community resilience and triggers a reverse reconfiguration of spaces, as well as to understand the effects of revitalizing these ancestral temple spaces on the community’s capabilities. This research contributes to the current rural heritage studies by highlighting that the revitalization of ancestral temples in rural areas serves as a catalyst for the formation of new community networks. It examines the transforming impact of revitalized ancestral temple sites on rural social dynamics, resulting in competition, conflict, and interaction among various social groups. It enriches existing research on rural heritage by presenting a distinctive case of Whampoa Village in Guangzhou, southern China, and juxtaposing it with various rural heritage contexts in the Global North.

This study is structured as follows: Section 1 presents the context and significance of this research. Section 2 develops the analytical framework following the literature review; Section 3 and Section 4 present the Whampoa case and outline the research methodology; Section 5 employs Whampoa Village as a case study to examine the revitalization of ancestral temple spaces and their effects on community relations; finally, a discussion of the results is provided, leading to conclusions.

2. From Space–Social Relations and Field Theory to a New Community Practice in Rural Micro-Renewal

2.1. Brief Review on Space–Social Relations

The field of social scientific study experienced a notable transition termed the “spatial turn” in the 1960s, which reconceptualized space from a philosophical abstraction to a crucial component of social production [20,21,22]. Manuel Castells defined space as a tangible representation of society, asserting that its form and process are influenced by the dynamics of the overarching social structure [23,24]. Scholars including Henri Lefebvre, David Harvey, and Michel Foucault extensively explored the concepts of spatial capital and the complex interplay between space and social relationships [25,26]. Space is not a reflection of society but a manifestation of society [27]. Lefebvre proposed the notion of spatial production, arguing that space emerges as a consequence of social practices and relationships [27]. Harvey focused on the relationship between space and capital in urban environments, perceiving urban space as a constructed environment shaped by capitalist forces [28]. Simultaneously, Foucault underscored the connection between space and power, claiming that space constitutes the foundational underpinning of all forms of public life [29].

In response to Lefebvre’s spatial perspective, Harvey clarified the intrinsic relationship between time and space, highlighting that spatial phenomena are fundamentally connected to practical activities. He asserted that every social behavior defines its own space [30], arguing that the intrinsic nature of space is rooted in the human activities occurring inside it. Harvey’s dialectical interpretation of space, grounded in practical motivations, significantly advanced theoretical developments in historical-geographical materialism [31]. Harvey’s discourse on capitalist urbanization has significantly influenced urban studies [32].

Edward W. Soja emphasized the radical link between space and society [33]. He prioritized the significance of “spatiality” as a cognitive aspect equivalent to sociality and diachronicity, proposing a “historical-social-spatial” triadic dialectic to encourage a broader consideration of lived space [34]. Subsequently, he presented his own conceptual framework: the “Third Space” [35]. The “First Space” signifies the tangible, physically manifest space that can be identified, analyzed, and interpreted, while the “Second Space” represents the abstract, imaginative space frequently explored by philosophers and artists; the “Third Space” interrogates and redefines these dichotomies. It represents a new paradigm, both inclusive of and divergent from the former two, where the boundaries between the real and the virtual, as well as the structural and the perceptual, become indistinct, marked by a condition of continuous openness and transformation. Fundamentally, space constitutes society, and society constitutes space [36].

The notion of space provides significant insights into rural revitalization and the preservation of cultural heritage. It underscores the dynamic and complex essence of space, which transcends a mere physical reality and is actively constructed through social activities and human agency [37]. This perspective encourages us to perceive rural areas not as static or passive, but as living and evolving spaces that are shaped by and shape human activities. In the context of rural revitalization, spatial theory emphasizes the necessity of examining the broader socio-spatial processes that affect rural development, encompassing elements such as power dynamics, social interactions, and cultural practices. It also underscores the significance of preserving not only physical structures but also the intangible elements of cultural heritage, thus reinforcing cultural identity and cultivating a feeling of place among rural communities.

2.2. From Field Theory to New Community Practice

The concept of “field” as a spatial construct is essential in Pierre Bourdieu’s theory of social practice. A “field” is a spatial framework in which actors occupy positions and perform actions based on their acquired capital and intrinsic habitus. In his seminal book, Distinction [38], Bourdieu explicitly articulated the relationship between geographical and social spaces, attracting extensive academic attention. In the examination of field theory within spatial research, two primary approaches are employed. One entails the research of particular areas, including the examination of changes in social networks inside urban villages throughout urbanization [39] and the establishment of unique social spaces in tourism villages [40]. The alternative focuses on studying fields defined by relational boundaries, emphasizing the importance of “local fields” in tourism research [41,42,43] and analyzing the field-like nature of regional and community governance. Field theory can elucidate the objective linkages among individuals, corresponding with the network dynamics inherent in communal interactions during the revitalization of ancestral temples [44,45].

The framework of field theory centers on the interrelated concepts of field, capital, and habitus [46,47]. It can be summarized as follows: “A field is shaped by a series of objective relationships among spaces occupied by different forms of rights (or capital), while habitus comprises a series of historical relationships A field is composed of a series of objective relations of various position spaces attached to a certain right (or capital) form, while habitus is composed of a series of historical relations accumulated in the individual body, which is in the form of various physical and mental schemas of perception, judgment, and action”. [38] (p.35) [48]. Essentially, within a social context (field), an individual’s disposition (habitus) and their accumulation of capital, power, and status (their position in the field) govern their practical activities. Furthermore, the broader societal field comprises multiple subfields, each governed by its predominant logic and capital. Individuals possessing unique habitus inherently hold different positions according to their specific capitals, participating in continuous competition for capital while simultaneously affecting the formation of field structures and habitus through reciprocal interactions.

Field theory provides a valuable lens through which to understand social practices. It facilitates the advancement of social practice theory. Hegel eliminated the dichotomy between labor and practice, integrating labor activities and their results as part of creativity [49]. The conflict between structural determinism and consciousness determinism diminished throughout time, giving rise to a more neutral interpretative approach. This multi-agent, multi-factor observational perspective corresponds with the attributes of contemporary rural spatial revitalization. Additionally, field theory, emerging from the spatial turn in sociological theory, serves as a tool for exploring the interaction between material and social spaces [50,51]. This approach enhances understanding of interactions among various populations in communities and the revitalization of ancestral temples during rural micro-renewal. Furthermore, it also sheds light on the evolution of social relationship networks throughout this process.

2.3. Understanding the Revitalization of Ancestral Temple Space in Rural Micro-Renewal

In recent years, scholars have recognized the academic significance of ancestral temples. Ancestral temples represent traditional common spaces and possess considerable material and cultural historical significance within villages [52]. They function not only as physical sites but also as guardians of traditional cultural values, serving as stores of cultural memory and enabling cultural interchange across many cultural landscapes. Historically, ancestral temples played several roles, including hosting ceremonial rituals, deliberations, and education [53]. Over time, their traditional role as bearers of clan culture has diminished [54]. Sociological research on these temples has predominantly followed two trajectories: one emphasizes the revitalization of ancestral temple spaces [11], while the other investigates the relationship between ancestral temples, clan culture, and factors such as natural ecology, social structure, and academic cultural development [55,56,57,58]. These studies have clarified multiple aspects, including the relationship between ancestral temples and religious beliefs, feng shui principles, the transformation of traditional ancestral temple landscapes in the context of fast urbanization, and the evolution of ancestral temples within family systems. Nonetheless, the cultural significance of ancestral temples as rural heritage and their influence on rural social order and relationships under various revitalization models remains inadequately explored, resulting in a research gap regarding the reciprocal influence of space and social relationships instigated by the revitalization of village ancestral temples.

This gap requires more investigation for three reasons: Firstly, rural areas experience transformation or reorganization, revealing ancient features or generating new forms, thus imparting new meanings. Research should explore the inherent value of cultural heritage and clarify its developing cultural importance. Secondly, although research on spatial transformation models has advanced, there remains insufficient exploration into the cultural substance and social significance embedded in traditional rural environments. Lastly, existing research predominantly focuses on curation before transformation, with insufficient emphasis on the change process and its subsequent effects on local populations, especially regarding the interplay between space and social relationships. To address these gaps, Whampoa Village in Guangzhou is chosen within the context of micro-renewal to examine the changes arising from the revitalization of ancestral temples on residents’ everyday lives and community relationships. This research seeks to offer insights into the preservation of rural cultural heritage by synthesizing findings from the case study on the revitalization of ancestral temples and their impacts on rural social order and relationships.

This study constructs an analytical framework developed from the “field–space–society” perspective to examine the dynamic interaction between the revitalization of ancestral temple spaces and the network dynamics of diverse communities within the context of rural micro-renewal (Figure 1). The revitalization of specific social spaces, such as ancestral temples, can restructure the habitus through the everyday interactions and activities of community members, thereby establishing new networks by integrating newcomers. Within the spatial context of an ancestral temple, social conventions influence community members’ engagement in daily activities, rituals, and regular maintenance. Furthermore, social capital is manifested in the networks of reciprocal help and support among community members, which enable the efficient organization of temple activities. Different actors engage in competition and collaboration for resources and status within the field. In the realm of the ancestral temple, behavioral patterns are shaped by the power structure, resource allocation, and cultural conventions.

3. Research Methodology

This study employed a case study methodology (see Section 4 for details). It utilized a mixed-method approach for data collection, including document analysis, in-depth interviews, and field observations. The interviews used a purposive sampling method targeting individuals involved in the micro-renewal project of Whampo’s ancestral temples. Questions encompassed four categories: the motivation of the renewal; interactions within the ancestral temples in the community; the attitudes towards the renewal of these ancestral temples based on varied usage; and the impacts on the community (Appendix A). The interviews conducted in this study have obtained ethical approval. A total of 21 individuals were interviewed (

Table 1. List of interviewees (Source: the authors).

Interview No.	Interviewees	Gender	Notes
L1	Whampoa Residents	female	Leader of the Culture Promotion Association
L2		female	Volunteer of the Culture Promotion Association
L3		female	Liang Xun’s former residence
L4		male	/
L5		male	/
L6		male	Volunteer of the Culture Promotion Association
L7		female	Volunteer of the Culture Promotion Association
L8		male	/
L9		male	/
L10		female	/
L11		female	/
N1	New village tenants	male	Graduated from Peking University with a master’s degree
N2		male	Graduated from South China University of Technology with a master’s degree
N3		female	freelancer
V1	Tourists	female	/
V2		female	/
P1	Entrepreneurs	male	Ancestral temple renter
P2		male	Ancestral temple renter
P3		female	Ancestral temple renter
P4		male	A member of Inter Culture Space
P5		male	A member of Inter Culture Space

). Respondents were chosen to encompass a diverse array of perspectives related to the revitalization of ancestral temples. Individuals with relevant involvement and experience in the village were chosen, including NGO managers (such as the chairman of the Whampoa Village Cultural Heritage Promotion Association), entrepreneurs, volunteers, artisans, residents (including a daughter-in-law of a descendant of Liang Xun), ancestral temple lessees, tourists, new village tenants, public administration personnel, and shopkeepers. All interviews were transcribed and thematically coded following Bryman’s methodology.

Secondly, one of the authors completed an internship at the Whampoa Village Cultural Heritage Promotion Association from 2 March 2023 to 30 April 2023, participating in meetings and assisting various activities. The internship diary consisted of 96,000 words. The utilization and negotiation of ancestral temples inside the village were scrutinized, and daily activities organized by the Whampoa Village Cultural Heritage Promotion Association were observed. Third, supplemental data, comprising news articles, government policies, and online videos and papers, were collected to obtain information regarding the planning of Whampoa Village, the progress of the micro-renewal transformation, and public sentiment. Data coding was carried out. The coding categories included improvement of the village environment, community activities, and attitudes towards newcomers.

4. Study Area

4.1. Case Overview

The village under examination is Whampoa Village. It is located along the banks of the Pearl River in the eastern part of Haizhu District, Guangzhou, China, with a history that extends over a millennium (Figure 2). The etymology of “Huangpu” is interpreted in multiple ways, yet the prevailing perspective asserts that the village was initially referred to as “Fengpu”. In the 23rd year of Emperor Kangxi’s reign (1684), coinciding with the implementation of the “one port trade” policy, it became the exclusive primary port for foreign trade during the Qing Dynasty. As a result of a misunderstanding among foreign traders, the term gradually transformed into “Whampoa’’.

The village serves as a repository of cultural heritage, preserving numerous ancient architectural remnants, such as residential buildings, ancestral temples, shrines, private academies, historic docks, tax collection halls, and guildhalls. It contains four significant ancestor temples: Liang’s Ancestral Temple, Feng’s Ancestral Temple, Luo’s Ancestral Temple, and Hu’s Ancestral Temple. Furthermore, it encompasses more than 70 historical residences, with the Japanese Building and the Grandaunt House serving as particularly significant examples. The ancient temples, formerly referred to as Huatuo Temple, Hongsheng Temple, and Notre Dame Palace, have dramatically decreased in quantity, leaving only the Temple of the North God. The formerly vibrant Jiangyuan Dock witnessed a phase of remarkable economic prosperity.

Additionally, the village serves as the crucible of intangible cultural heritage, including the North Emperor (beidi) Birth Festival and the Ancestral Temple Cultural Festival. The local community hosts the “Lingnan Ancestral Temple Culture Festival” annually, which includes traditional cultural events such as couplet exhibitions, seminars on national studies, and Cantonese opera performances. These events are essential for revitalizing the cultural practices and artistic heritage of “Old Guangzhou”.

In 2002, the Guangzhou municipal government commenced the micro-renewal of Whampoa Village. This initiative involved the issuance of multiple preservation and renewal mandates, highlighting the principles of “protecting integrity and optimizing remediation”. Additionally, the Comprehensive Improvement and Landscape Planning of the Surrounding Environment of the Whampoa Ancient Port was compiled, with the objective of restoring the historical characteristics of the Whampoa Ancient Port, refurbishing the port facilities, and designating the Ancestral Temple Exhibition Hall and the “First Pass of Guangdong Sea” Museum as cultural exhibition spaces to ensure the preservation of cultural heritage.

Following years of comprehensive revitalization, the village experienced substantial redevelopment, transforming into a community characterized by its cultural park concept. This concept features four functional zones: exhibition, dissemination, entertainment, and leisure, thus revitalizing traditional spaces. In 2013, Whampoa Village was designated as part of the second batch of China’s Traditional Villages program. Furthermore, it was inscribed on the World Heritage List of the Guangzhou Maritime Silk Road in 2018.

4.2. The Revitalization of Ancestral Temples in Whampoa

Fifteen ancestral temples in Whampoa have been conserved and have seen varied levels of revitalization and rejuvenation during the micro-renewal process. These ancestral temples possess considerable emotional and cultural significance for the villagers [59]. Historically, these temples have functioned as central hubs for essential rural activities, including religious ceremonies, communal banquets, festival celebrations, and village assemblies. The spatial layout of these ancestral temples adheres to a well-defined symmetrical pattern, which is a hallmark of traditional Chinese architecture. This symmetry is not merely an aesthetic choice but also serves functional and symbolic purposes. Along the central axis, various functional areas are meticulously arranged, creating a sense of order and balance. The main hall, typically the most prominent structure, serves as the focal point of the temple complex. However, as time goes by, these ancestral temples are facing the situation of being damaged or neglected. Recent revitalization efforts have significantly upgraded the physical infrastructure of these temples, improved their facilities, and expanded their utilization for diverse purposes.

Renewal financing is derived from governmental budgetary allocations, contributions from clan associations, and community donations, with clan associations serving as the primary source of funds, mobilizing support from members across many industries. These clan affiliations are crucial in obtaining financial assistance for building ancestral temples. Post-revitalization rental income is collected by clan organizations and reinvested in the community to fund temple maintenance, public events (e.g., religious offerings, weddings, and funerals), and to assist village students and disadvantaged families.

The Whampoa ancestral temples are classified into three categories according to their revitalization goals: community cultivation, social welfare, and commercial interests (Appendix B). Feng’s Ancestral Temple and Luo’s Ancestral Temple have been renovated for community usage, serving as the major activity center and educational venue for villagers. Liang’s Ancestral Temple and Zhushan Feng’s Ancestral Temple have been repurposed as the Whampoa Village Humanities and History Exhibition Center and the Guidi Academy, respectively. The remaining 11 temples have been repurposed for commercial use, with one remaining unoccupied. These comprise three cultural studios, two clubs, one bookstore, and two spaces designated for commercial usage by overseas Chinese associations from Hong Kong and Macao (Figure 3). The rest are rented to diverse social and cultural organizations, including writers, tea aficionados, and craftspeople, for purposes such as scholarly meetings, meditation, and tea sampling. This classification is solely for the purpose of facilitating analysis. Indeed, they are not mutually exclusive; for instance, a singular ancestral temple may fulfill dual or multiple purposes following its revitalization. Here, temples are categorized according to their principal function.

5. Results

The revitalized temples, via their varied functions, have emerged as catalysts for fostering community coexistence and communication. The community bonds established at ancestral temples differ in character and strength among various revitalization plans and approaches. Diverse social groups and complex social interactions arise from the inherent attractiveness of the space and pre-existing social network connections, therefore facilitating the fostering of new networks of actors within the community.

5.1. Reconstruction of Community Networks by the Revitalization of Ancestral Temples

5.1.1. Social Welfare Orientation

Liang’s Ancestral Temple has been transformed into the Whampoa Village Humanities and History Exhibition Center following revitalization (Figure 4). The exhibition center comprises five sections: village origins, the blending of Chinese and Western cultures, water village customs, notable historical figures, and Whampoa’s international connections. It fulfills a public function, enabling visitors to engage with the historical atmosphere at the intersection of the port and village. Whampoa Village is the residence of the patriotic diplomat Liang Cheng, celebrated during the Qing Dynasty. His endeavors in obtaining funding for international education and founding Tsinghua Academy were crucial milestones. Consequently, Liang’s Ancestral Temple draws a multitude of scholars, artists, and tourists, particularly eager to explore Liang Cheng’s story, so cultivating deeper patriotism.

In contrast to Liang’s Ancestral Temple, Zhushan Feng’s Ancestral Temple has been converted into the Guidi Academy (Figure 4a). This institution offers participation experiences, seminars, and courses on Chinese studies to villagers and guests. Furthermore, its premises are open for external rental. The Guidi Academy performs a dual function: it acts as a conduit for government programs and simultaneously facilitates moral forums that promote traditional Chinese studies and cultural heritage. Dean Yuan Yan frequently presents public lectures on Chinese studies and has established a children’s class at the academy (Figure 4b). This initiative seeks to involve a wider audience via children, thus expanding the village’s social networks.

Oh, my child is in the kindergarten in Pazhou. I pass by (Whampoa Village) every day. I did not anticipate that the cultural atmosphere here is so good, and there are sinology classes in the ancestral temple.

(V1, 28 March 2023)

Currently, the enlightenment and learning of sinology are carried out at weekends. Those who take classes include scholars, education practitioners, and parents of children.

(P1, 22 March 2023)

Revitalizing ancestral temples not only increases the physical space accessible to local community members but also attracts urban residents. This effort cultivates a network of linkages among a varied array of individuals, events, and artifacts within the temple grounds, ultimately reconfiguring the interconnectedness of the village’s community bonds. These projects illustrate how physical environments can profoundly affect and strengthen community connections. Inclusive involvement in communal events fosters beneficial interactions among neighbors, facilitating the efficient integration of social resources and collective intelligence. Ancestral temples, as traditional venues experiencing “renewal and iteration”, are sustainably employed, enhancing the village’s cultural significance. An interviewee, a graduate of Peking University, had held a position at Gongmei Port adjacent to the village before resigning to join the Cultural Promotion Association in Whampoa. He stated the following:

There (Whampoa Village) is a lot of delicious food here, and living is very comfortable. I often take my friends to participate in the activities held in the village, such as the guide of the humanities and history museum, art exhibitions, and reading clubs, which are very interesting and from which I can learn a lot and understand the culture here.

(N1, 24 March 2023)

Through the organization of public activities, these temple spaces not only strengthen the heritage of the historic village but also contribute to the wider preservation and promotion of national history and culture. The village concurrently undergoes a demographic shift. Diverse creative groups, comprising music producers, woodblock printing artisans, fashion designers, and guesthouse owners, interact with Whampoa villagers throughout these events. By sharing their stories within these ancestral temples, they cultivate stronger ties with the village, providing educational insights to villagers on maximizing the utilization of communal spaces for the enriched exploration and development of the village’s cultural and communal identity.

5.1.2. Commercial Interests Orientation

Informed by the micro-renewal of old villages and successful commercial programs such as Zengcuo’an Village in Xiamen, Fujian Province, and Hong Village in Anhui Province, Whampoa has adopted strategies to attract private investments and accommodate various cultural studios. These encompass both artist-driven and large-scale art enterprises. Motivated by commercial interests, several ancestral temples have been adapted to satisfy consumer needs and have expanded their functionality [60].

To alleviate legal complications arising from past extensive reconfigurations to ancestral temples, the clan association rigorously assesses prospective lessees and their proposals. Cultural and artistic organizations are favored, and severe limitations are enforced on substantial reconfigurations to the exteriors and facilities of ancestral temples. As a result, several ancestral temples have been converted to incorporate commerce and activity spaces, thereby enhancing the village’s exterior social network connections.

The engagement of social capital highlights the profound cultural and humanistic legacy inherent in Whampoa. Such efforts enable the revitalization and transformation of these spaces into economically sustainable places or architectural structures. The Ancestral Temple of Zixi Hu has been converted into an artist’s studio, providing paid meditation workshops (Figure 5a,b). According to its administrator, Mr. Zhang, this space welcomes individuals from diverse religious beliefs, socioeconomic statuses, and educational backgrounds, promoting an environment that facilitates self-discovery and personal development.

Different from other ancestral temples, it (Zixi Hu’s Temple) is exquisite and small, with agarwood, red wine, tea, and books on display. The teacher showed us the photos of the ancestral temple before decoration and said that she had invested a lot of money to present its current appearance, however, the internal culture and external refinement are most attractive.

(V2, 28 March 2023)

This course (Guangdong Embroidery training course in Luo’s Ancestral Temple) provides experience lessons for you. The teacher is very nice and professional. Her ancestors’ arts and crafts are handed down from generation to generation, and she has been focusing on embroidery for almost 60 years, so she is a senior artist of Guang embroidery.

(L1, 24 March 2023)

The main aim of commercially revitalized ancestral temple spaces is to serve young and middle-aged folks, fulfilling the needs of nearby entrepreneurial offices. The reconfiguration of social dynamics prompted by this demographic is evident in two interrelated aspects: firstly, among a community of young individuals who preserve their unique social networks, enabling communication and organization for events like book clubs or seminars; and secondly, in the interactions between these youths and the wider community, thereby promoting increased engagement with local residents. Interviews reveal that many community social workers have established connections by engaging in activities organized at these ancestral temples.

I met her during a research activity in March, and now I find that her house (Liang Xun’s former residence) is very close to me. If I didn’t participate in these activities in the village, I would haven’t known so many people. Now, I like here.

(L2, L3, 4 April 2023)

“We have a special WeChat group, and the activities such as reading or meditation will be released in the group. Those who are willing to participate can sign up directly in the group. We are commercially profitable, but we also welcome villagers to come and participate in some free activities”.

(N2, 30 March 2023)

The spatial attributes of these commercial orientations exert a dual impact on community dynamics. The improvement of commercial infrastructure in ancient temples, along with the incorporation of multipurpose spaces, provides residents with close access to recreational options in nearby public places. The presence of public space stimulates residents’ engagement in social activities, whether actively or passively, thus fostering a diversified and inclusive community network. The commercialization driven by capital exerts pressure on people’s daily living environments, resulting in dissatisfaction among villagers concerning the transformation of ancestral temples for commercial use.

It’s a pity to make money by using ancestral temples. I used to go there often, but now there are a lot of strangers, and the whole village is noisy.

(L4, 31 March 2023)

5.1.3. Community Cultivation Orientation

Ancestral temples, formerly deliberative platforms for villagers regarding communal issues, have transformed post-revitalization into central hubs for daily activities. Historically, these temples predominantly served adult males, excluding women and children from participation. Feng’s Ancestral Temple, the largest in the village and initially designated as Yunyin Feng’s Ancestral Temple, has significantly contributed to community education for more than eighty years. Notwithstanding certain damages and demolitions, a significant portion of the structure remains unscathed. This temple, now repurposed as a village activity center, enables regular interactions among villagers and is available to both clan members and the wider community. This inclusivity promotes dialogue and engagement among diverse community groups, thereby creating a spatial foundation for cultivating harmonious and friendly interactions within the community. The facility formerly allocated for women and children’s activities, previously situated at Meishi Feng’s Ancestral Temple, has now been transferred to Feng’s Ancestral Temple.

I often come here (Feng’s Ancestral Temple) to play chess. In the past, we often played chess in the park, but there were too many mosquitoes. Now we can also make tea here.

(L5, 4 April 2023)

The improvement of the ancestral temple space has continually reinforced its function as a leisure and entertainment venue, confirming its status as a vital hub for daily emotional exchanges. The revitalized Hu’s Ancestral Temple is crucial for community engagement. In July 2015, the “Ancient Village” initiative collaborated with multiple arts and culture studios to establish the “Community School” concept. This model received endorsement from the street culture station, obtained funding and venue support, engaged stakeholders, and facilitated the revitalization of the space.

In 2021, the NGO “InterCulture” (wanglai wenhua) commenced collaborative initiatives with diverse Sino-European cultural exchange organizations and corporations, centered around Hu’s Ancestral Temple. “InterCulture” consistently executed many cultural exchange projects, such as the Ideologist Residency, Tastes of Happiness, Interdisciplinary Laboratories, and Contemporary Art Exhibitions, designed to promote cross-cultural conversation. InterCulture is committed to fostering cultural contacts between China and Germany, along with other European nations. Situated in Whampoa and linked to the global community, InterCulture has invited researchers from several disciplines. These initiatives have resulted in the production of art exhibitions, concerts, talks, and further events, all conducted within Hu’s Ancestral Temple. Notable events encompass the “HERstory Beautiful Story” exhibition in May 2022, succeeded by the third PKN International Day centered on “Love and Optimism” in June, and the “Biocultural Community” exhibition by Karin Pliem in July. The inclusive nature of these events has fostered a dynamic community culture within Whampoa, thereby reinforcing communal bonds.

The space inside (Hu’s Ancestral Temple) is very beautiful, and there are often painting exhibitions and art exhibitions. The villagers also come here, especially some young people, and they often bring their friends to visit here.

(L6, 11 April 2023)

In November 2017, British director Alan facilitated a community theater workshop in Whampoa. This 20-day program, which welcomed community involvement, included theater exercises conducted by three distinct organizers in Hu’s Ancestral Temple over a span of three months. This project increased community engagement and improved contact between workshop participants and the local community.

This community theater is rooted in the community. It mainly aims to lead a down-to-earth and artistic community theater. If you want to participate, you can sign in. We also designed a lot of links to invite the villagers to participate in, sharing their stories.

(P4, 11 April 2023)

We have a special group. It will release activities in the village and invite villagers, and we always help each other. The activities are more artistic, and residents will also be invited to participate. There are a lot of meditation and reading clubs in Zixi Hu’s Ancestral Temple.

(N2, 4 April 2023)

The Whampoa Village Cultural Heritage Promotion Association was established in 2016. It partners with the descendants of Liang Cheng and the Tsinghua University Alumni Association to facilitate academic and cultural events (Figure 6b), including educational tours and intellectual conversations. These activities enhance villagers’ respect and connection to Whampoa Village’s local culture while promoting traditional Chinese culture, thus fostering a community organization rooted in collective emotional experiences.

If an ancestral temple isn’t renovated or revitalized, then few people know this thing and this culture. Why did Tsinghua students fly here from Beijing? Because there is a bond of clan.

(N3, 4 April 2023)

The two renovated ancestral temples serve as daily activity centers, community schools, and gathering spaces, offering a range of services that include aged care, children’s entertainment, and cultural enrichment facilities (Figure 6a). This effort cultivates the inaugural group of adherents of the historic village and establishes links with local resource development. This revitalization approach of ancestral temples enables local residents and newcomers to engage in the promotion and cultivation of culture, then broadening the community’s network of relationships and enhancing the cultural confidence and self-governance capacities of its members.

5.2. Rejuvenation of Rural Public Spaces Through the Lens of Social Relations

The revitalization of ancestral temples in Whampoa Village, formed by various stakeholders, represents a collaborative endeavor among villagers, clan members from outside Whampoa, temple administrators, new tenants, entrepreneurs, grassroots government officials, and shopkeepers. Additionally, it revitalizes the village’s public space by fostering social interactions and cultivating a sense of community.

5.2.1. Motivating the New Development of Ancestral Temples

In traditional rural social structures, clan organizations occupy a pivotal role, serving as mediators in dispute resolution and supervising the management and preservation of rural public places. The prototype for the Women and Children’s Activity Center in Whampoa Village was originally situated within the Meishi Feng Ancestral Temple, which was renovated by the Feng Clan Association after its acquisition from the village economic cooperative. The Whampoa Dragon Boat Association currently manages Meishi Feng’s Ancestral Temple, which serves as a venue for folk performances.

The Feng Clan donated one million Yuan. They are more united and attach great importance to these ancestral temples. Now, Feng’s Ancestral Temple is the center of the village activities, where people can play chess and even hold weddings.

(L7, 30 March 2023)

Local workers and visiting artists have established their social networks through ancestral temples as tangible entities. They hold assemblies that perpetually transform the current environment. Diverse groups introduce cultural and social links, imbuing ancestral temples with renewed meaning and generating various purposes. In this context, ancestral temples transcend their traditional function as community activity centers, becoming crucial hubs for clan affiliations and versatile locations that promote social and economic endeavors.

5.2.2. Expansion of Whampoa Public Space

In recent decades, certain rural communities have evolved from being “isolated” and “homogeneous” to “inclusive” and “heterogeneous”. Residents are increasingly breaking the constraints of clans and collective bodies. These transformations have resulted in a transition of rural public spaces from a condition of “thriving” to “declining”. Numerous historic villages have witnessed substantial population outflows and a decline in public activities. It is in this context that Whampoa starts to embark on a micro-renewal project.

The micro-renewal has led to an influx of varied newcomers, thus reconfiguring the public spaces of Whampoa Village. Its original spatial configuration features two primary commercial centers: East Market and West Market. East Market, situated in the village center on Whampoa Zhi Street, mostly services the local clan, whilst West Market, located near the dock on Haibang Street, accommodates the trading community. Prior to the revitalization, there was minimal interaction between these two centers. The revitalization of the ancestral temples has interconnected these commercial centers, featuring squares in front of the temples, such as Whampoa Park adjacent to Liang’s Ancestral Temple and the small square before Zhushan Feng’s Ancestral Temple.

When the overseas Chinese come back to the village, they drink tea and discuss some things in it. They also treasure some antiques in the ancestral temple, which also attracts many artists to the ancient village.

(L8, L9, 12 April 2023)

Very few people came here before. After the establishment of the academy, we often come here to play ball after dinner and walk and chat. Others will also watch us play balls, and some will play with us.

(L10, 4 April 2023)

I’ve been here many years. In the past, we generally bought vegetables in the west city, but now, many people go to the East City.

(L11, 12 April 2023)

The micro-renewal of the historic village has attracted a cohort from the creative class. This encompasses poets; traditional Chinese artists, such as painters and sculptors; skilled craftsmen in traditional crafts; and educated, idealistic youth. As recent arrivals in Whampoa, they have established their own studios and enterprises and have organized activities including poetry, calligraphy, painting, tea culture, and monastic practices. These endeavors also indicate a transformation of the Whampoa’s spatial landscape.

6. Conclusions and Discussion

This study uses Whampoa Village as a case to examine the interconnected processes and dynamics between the revitalization of rural cultural heritage—illustrated by ancestral temples—and the transformation of rural public spaces amid micro-renewal initiatives. In addressing the first research question, it is observed that in traditional Chinese society, ancestral temples hold substantial spiritual and cultural importance for families and clans. Before the revitalization, these temples largely served as venues for clan members to honor their ancestors and discuss internal affairs. Following revitalization, these spaces have undergone variety of changes in their functional attributes. In Whampoa, the use of ancestral temples is classified into three categories: social welfare, commercial interests, and community cultivation. During this transformative process, the demographics of those engaged in reshaping rural spaces have become increasingly heterogeneous. Apart from the local villagers, various social groups, such as writers, artists, poets, painters, and scholars, have established a presence, participating in diverse activities within the ancestral temples and contributing to the creation of new spatial configurations tailored to their needs.

In addressing the second study question, it is observed that the revitalization of ancestral temples has redefined the stakeholders, resulting in the establishment of new social networks that subsequently reconfigure the rural landscape. Key participants comprise individuals and clan groups from beyond the community, with inhabitants often engaging as volunteers. During the post-revitalization phase, involvement encompasses not only clan members but also social volunteer groups and community workers who engage in a wide array of events within these spaces, such as lectures, exhibitions, reading sessions, and traditional festival celebrations. These efforts aim to preserve and promote the legacy of the nation’s traditional culture.

The revitalization of ancestral temples has attracted new social groups, fostering relationships among various populations and encouraging the creation of shared living spaces. In Whampoa, the establishment of social welfare-oriented spaces has evolved from local culture, including celebrity and ancestral temple traditions, to the promotion of traditional national culture. The Cultural Heritage Promotion Association and the Tsinghua University Alumni Association have partnered to foster a patriotic culture centered on the village’s esteemed person, Liang Cheng. Nonetheless, these two cultural components are distinct; traditional national culture predominantly focuses on external cultural groups, with minimal involvement from villagers and community members.

The revitalization process necessitates additional consideration of the congruence between community and social factors. In ancestral temples, combining traditional and modern activities fosters community and social contact, embodying the convergence of shared feelings. Local villagers reconnect with their heritage, allowing a wider audience to understand and thoroughly investigate the complexities of rural culture. The coexistence of multiple communities simultaneously boosts community life and promotes sustainable development within the village. Nevertheless, studies on commercially driven places align with existing conclusions regarding capital’s role in generating new consumer contexts. Capital investment endows ancestral temples with financial characteristics, failing to evenly benefit the original villagers. It attracts consumer demographics, drawing young folks from beyond the village, and progressively establishes secure rural social structures. In community cultivation-oriented spaces, enhanced human connections promote community development and revitalize social bonds grounded in everyday experiences. Currently, merely two ancestral temples serve the purpose of community cultivation, underscoring the necessity for more public places and increased engagement from community organizations to bolster self-governance capacities.

It is noteworthy that, during this process, the engagement of social capital may remove villagers from certain rural areas, thereby constraining their original living spaces. When ancestral temples are commercialized and village residences are converted into consumer venues like homestays and bars, there is a need for balanced and regulated government intervention. It is essential to reassert the pivotal role of villagers, guarantee that spatial development addresses their needs rather than prioritizing capital gains, and empower villagers to fully reap the benefits of rural development.

The progressive breakdown of traditional, close-knit rural communities and the outward migration of residents have considerably undermined rural self-governance, presenting a considerable challenge to contemporary rural governance in China. The micro-renewal of historic villages has attracted significant social capital investment as well as a cohort of highly educated newcomers. This has enhanced the governing structure of the villages and generated further opportunities and challenges for the preservation of rural culture. Nonetheless, the precise effects of these developments require further observation and analysis. This study contributes to China’s rural revitalization policies by offering insights into attracting additional external resources. It illustrates the significance of human resources in rural development. The influx of highly educated newcomers has the potential to introduce new ideas and managerial expertise. It is necessary to establish more inclusive and participatory governance mechanisms that can integrate different stakeholders, including new inhabitants and external investors. For developing countries with substantial rural populations, the micro-renewal of historical villages in China may serve as a reference for their rural development strategies and policies.