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Review

Building with Snow: Technical Exploration and Practice of Snow Materials and Snow Architecture

by
Jianfeng Sun
1,2,
Qingwen Zhang
1,2,*,
Guolong Zhang
1,2,* and
Feng Fan
1,2
1
Key Lab of Structures Dynamic Behavior and Control of the Ministry of Education, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China
2
Key Lab of Smart Prevention and Mitigation of Civil Engineering Disasters of the Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Buildings 2025, 15(8), 1277; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15081277
Submission received: 6 February 2025 / Revised: 27 March 2025 / Accepted: 9 April 2025 / Published: 13 April 2025
(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Focusing on the design and construction of snow structures, this paper explores the properties of snow materials, construction methods, and operation–maintenance strategies, aiming to demonstrate how to integrate architectural functionality, aesthetics, and structural reliability in snow architecture. It reviews current methods of snow material testing and numerical simulation, yet research on the material properties of machine-made snow remains limited. Current design trends in snow architecture emphasize diverse artistic expressions. After reviewing construction methods of existing snow buildings, the paper employs finite element analysis software to validate design schemes. Upon confirming structural feasibility, it further proposes a monitoring framework for snow structures.

1. Origin and Preliminary Exploration of Snow Architecture

Snow is a gift from nature, and the utilization of snow resources has great developmental potential. Snow architecture is a special form of construction that uses snow as the main building material and has a long history and rich cultural connotations in cold regions. The Inuit people of the Arctic region already use snow materials in their homes [1], which dates back tens of thousands of years. Throughout the long history, the application of snow materials has been extensive. People have used snow to make lanterns for lighting, to build dwellings to resist the cold, or to cast snow with sand for constructing fortifications.
Today, people in many cold regions of the world build houses suitable for living according to the cultural customs, living habits, environmental conditions, etc., of their respective regions [2]. For instance, Japan, Canada, Sweden, Russia, and other places have all produced snow architectural forms with distinct features and diverse styles. In Akita Prefecture, Japan, a snow house festival is held every February, where local residents set up several large snow houses and countless small snow houses, and offer sweet sake and rice cakes inside, a tradition that has been around for over 400 years. One-third of Finland’s land is within the Arctic Circle and it is a country with winter lasting for five months. Therefore, Finns try to entertain themselves with the abundant local snow resources, and since 1996, every winter, people have used seawater from the Gulf of Bothnia to make snow materials for building grand snow castles. In Sweden, Norway, Canada, and other places, snow hotels, snow restaurants, snow churches, and other buildings made primarily of snow are already in use [3]. Nowadays, all over the world, efforts are being made to actively explore the future development space of snow architecture from different perspectives.
Harbin successfully bid for the ninth Asian Winter Games in 2025, becoming the second city to host two editions of the Asian Winter Games. Following Beijing, Chengdu, and Hangzhou, this is another major international event that China has successfully bid for in recent years. With unique snow resources, a beautiful ecological environment, and distinctive folk customs, the Asian Winter Games will inevitably drive the further development of snow-related tourism industries. This also puts forward higher requirements for the innovative design and construction technology of related supporting facilities.
In recent years, snow tourism has also been developing rapidly on a global scale, mainly reflected in market demand growth, infrastructure improvement, and activity diversification. The upgrade of project sites and the improvement of transportation convenience have also enhanced the tourist experience. The number of tourists continues to break historical records, with family tourism being increasingly popular. In addition to traditional skiing, emerging activities such as snowmobiles, snow slides, and snow tug-of-war have also attracted tourists of different ages.
According to calculations based on big data and research analysis by the China Tourism Research Institute, between 8 November 2024 and 28 February 2025, Heilongjiang Province received a total of 135.083 million domestic and foreign tourists, an increase of 18.5% compared to the previous year, generating tourist revenue of 211.72 billion yuan, an increase of 30.7% (of which, 882,000 foreign tourists were received, with spending of 9.87 billion yuan, increases of 103.9% and 117.5%, respectively, compared to the previous year).
The Harbin Ice and Snow Carnival, located alongside the Songhua River, is an outdoor winter entertainment venue built on the Songhua River. Within its premises, there are various exquisite snow sculptures and attractions such as snow slides, which have attracted a large number of tourists to come and watch and participate.
The Harbin Sun Island Snow Expo, located in the Sun Island Scenic Area of Harbin City, has been held since 1999 and has become one of the world-renowned snow sculpture art venues. The Snow Expo is famous for its grand snow sculptures and rich cultural activities, which not only display the charm of ice and snow art but also showcase the unique charm and innovative spirit of ice and snow art through snow sculpture competitions and art exhibitions. From 27 November 2024 to 26 February 2025, the 37th Sun Island Snow Expo received a total of 359,000 visitors, a year-on-year increase of 47.7%.
Moreover, with the popularization of the concept of sustainable tourism, many cities have begun to emphasize environmental protection concepts, launch eco-tourism projects, and meet the needs of environmentally conscious tourists. The application of digital services and virtual reality technology enhances the convenience and immersion of tourists. Under the major trend of internationalization, countries attract more international tourists through cooperation and promotion. Overall, snow tourism is moving in a diversified, sustainable, and internationalized direction, providing tourists with a wealth of choices and experiences. Against such a background, how to better serve the practical needs with materials with natural attributes through technological means [4,5], and enable people and nature to truly coexist harmoniously, is a key issue that needs to be studied at this stage.
With the advancement of technology and the development of society, the traditional forms of snow architecture gradually cannot meet the diverse needs of the public. People are eager for a richer artistic expression in snow architecture. At the same time, the focus has shifted from satisfying basic living functions to enhancing the quality of life in snow architecture, further expanding its application scope [6]. There is a growing pursuit of innovation in the art of snow architecture design and construction techniques [7], leading to the development of a cold-region culture and snow-related emerging industries. This has become an increasingly important issue for relevant practitioners and researchers to consider.
Although snow sculpture art is flourishing at this stage, there is still a need for sufficient research on how to use snow materials to construct snow buildings with internal living space, as the transformation from artistic landscape structures to buildings is a complex process. The research in this area does not yet have a complete system, and there is a gap in the study of snow structures, including the long-term performance of the structure and the maintenance of snow structure safety performance. The development of snow landscape architecture needs to shift from residential attributes to the innovative combination of architectural modeling art and building technology. Taking the design and construction of snow structures as a starting point, people must aim to explore the properties of snow materials, construction methods, and operation and maintenance strategies, guiding thinking on how to organically combine the architectural functions, aesthetics, and structural reliability of snow buildings.

2. Research Status of Snow Materials

Research on snow materials is mainly divided into experimental research on the mechanical properties of snow materials and numerical simulation studies on the destruction of snow materials.
Foreign countries began to carry out relevant material tests on snow materials as early as the 1950s, and uniaxial compression tests were conducted on accumulated snow under constant strain rate and constant load [8,9] (Figure 1), and it was found that the dependence of uniaxial deformation on stress increases from a linear relationship at low stresses to an approximate cubic relationship at high stresses. It is worth noting that the high-stress relationship in snow is similar to the high-stress relationship observed in polycrystalline ice [10]. Canadian researchers found through research and analysis in 1956 that the average logarithm of the ultimate compressive strength characteristics of snow depends on the density of the snow, and has little to do with temperature and crystal size [11]. The factor causing the uncertainty of the final strength relationship is the bond between the snow particles, which is a mechanism sensitive to thermodynamic forces and, therefore, changes over time. Any questions involving the ultimate strength of snow in compression will be subject to the variability of this characteristic [12,13].
Japanese scholars have conducted years of experiments on snow materials (Figure 2 and Figure 3), and achieved a series of research results, focusing on the plastic deformation and destructive deformation of snow by compressing snow columns at different speeds isochronously [14,15,16,17,18]. When the compression speed is higher than a certain critical value, the snow column is subjected to destructive compression, and when the compression speed is lower than a certain critical value, the snow column is subjected to plastic compression. The curve diagram of the stress induced by compression in the snow material with time is obtained, and the relationship between the two is further expressed by formula [19].
Another study focused on the relationship between the compressive strength of snow specimens and the age of the snow used to make the snow specimens, the size of the snow grains, and the storage time of the snow specimens [20,21]. The results showed that the longer the age of the snow, the smaller the size of the snow grains, and the shorter the storage time of the snow specimens, the smaller the compressive strength. The change in the properties of snow specimens with age can be represented by an equation similar to that of a first-order chemical reaction [22]. The effect of adding a small amount of other gases to the air where the snow samples were stored was also studied, and carbon dioxide and methane did not affect it, but ammonia reduced the strength of the snow specimens [17]. This study further expands the research scope of snow materials.
The above snow material compression tests were all conducted by uniaxially compressing snow samples or pressing a rigid cone into the snow samples [23,24,25]. The selected compression speeds varied greatly, ranging from 0.01 mm/min to 1000 mm/min. During the tests, attention was paid to both the external changes in the snow mass as a whole and the microscopic internal changes during the compression process [26,27,28,29] (Figure 4 and Figure 5). This test method has an important reference value for the subsequent research experiments, especially for the selection of compression speed and sample size. In addition to the compression tests of snow materials, some scholars have attempted to conduct experimental research on the tensile and shear resistance of snow materials [30,31,32], achieving certain results. Based on these preliminary experimental results, further research can be conducted on various factors affecting the performance of snow materials.
After the 1990s, the related research on snow materials was further expanded to the field of climate. A global seasonal snow classification system was developed by researchers, and each category was defined by attributes such as snow grain size and type [33]. Using snow course data from sites in Alaska, USA, and Canada [34], the volume density versus time curve was divided into three categories with different slopes and intercepts of the curve. The study showed that the difference in compaction behavior mainly comes from the difference in rheology, which is the result of the difference in snow characteristics under climatic control. This finding explains why it is successful to predict regional snow density only from air temperature and wind speed without considering snow depth [35].
In recent years, some scholars have conducted research on the uniaxial compressive strength and deformation characteristics of machine-made snow [36,37]. Based on experience and research on natural snow, important physical and mechanical property data have been established through material tests on machine-made snow, aiming to improve and optimize the safe structure of snowmaking [9,38]. Researchers have conducted unconfined strength tests on machine-made snow with different structures. The results show that the structure affects mechanical performance, and coarse-grained machine-made snow is brittler than fine-grained machine-made snow. The correlation between density and compressive strength and Young’s modulus is weak, which may depend on the internal structure of the machine-made snow and its high density. Generally, the uniaxial compressive strength of machine-made snow is similar to that of natural snow of the same density [39]. This study is one of the few specialized studies on machine-made snow, and it has important reference significance for determining the critical deformation rate during uniaxial compression. The comparative data of material properties between machine-made snow and natural snow [40] have become the basis for subsequent related research.
Structures exhibit characteristics such as creep under low-temperature environments. Based on basic technical means such as 3D scanners and ultrasonic thickness measurement, existing observation, stress–strain collection, temperature and humidity collection, and other information collection technologies can be improved. This allows for the monitoring, feedback, and analysis of specialized indicators such as internal temperatures of structures, surface melting degrees, and material mechanical properties.
Currently, mature instruments for measuring snow density include the Snow Fork snow characteristic analyzer, which can measure snow densities ranging from 0 to 0.6 g/ccm. However, the snow materials suitable for measurement by the snow characteristic analyzer are mostly loose natural snow. Machine-made snow has a higher density and is harder than natural snow. The method more commonly used for its density measurement is the direct measurement of mass volume. Additionally, electronic universal testing machines can be employed to conduct experimental research on the mechanical properties of snow materials, studying the relationship between the mechanical properties of snow materials and various influencing factors, revealing the failure mechanisms of snow materials, and proposing structural performance evaluation methods for design reference.
The numerical simulation research methods of snow material failure currently include the finite element method, discrete element method, and near-field dynamics analysis, and the comparison of different simulation methods is shown in Table 1 below. Brendan West et al. used the segmented voxels in the μCT scans of snow as the model input geometry, so that the real snow microstructure in the model can be represented with high accuracy [41], determined the appropriate simulation domain size and domain resolution required for capturing the real snow behavior with near-field dynamics, and the application of near-field dynamics makes the numerical simulation of snow material failure microstructure more realistic. Scholar Pascal Hagenmuller applied X-ray scanning to carry out numerical simulation research on the damage of microstructure and tensile strength of snow, and assumed that the three-dimensional numerical model of mechanical properties of ice can simulate the damage of microstructure and its evolution in snow [41,42] (Figure 6).
The domestic research on the properties of snow materials started relatively late, with the main research directions including the mechanical properties, thermal properties, and aesthetic characteristics of snow materials, as well as snow melting technologies [31,43,44]. Some researchers conducted indoor and on-site snow melting tests to study the snow melting performance of road panels, and combined with numerical analysis, they developed software for thermal analysis of cement concrete road snow melting. They proposed a design method for the snow-melting system of cement concrete roads in cold regions [45]. Another group of researchers developed a real environment fluid heating road snow melting test system, established control methods for the operation of the snow melting system, and proposed the design heat load for the fluid heating road snow melting system for different regions in China with different snow melting objectives [46].
In summary, foreign research on the properties of snow materials started early, but the related studies mainly focused on the compression testing of snow materials [47,48,49,50,51,52,53,54,55,56,57,58,59,60,61,62,63,64] (Figure 7). The depth and systematic nature of research on the mechanical properties of snow materials need to be strengthened. There are fewer achievements in the areas of understanding the failure mechanisms of snow materials and related structural design methods [65,66], and there is insufficient guidance for practical engineering construction. Moreover, most of the foreign research targets natural snow, and there is a lack of results related to machine-made snow. Domestic research mostly reviews and draws from current research situations, still remaining at the stage of sorting out and summarizing, without delving deeply or tackling complex problems.

3. The Current State of Snow Architecture Design Research

There are many subdivisions in the current research surrounding the design of snow architecture. Some scholars mainly focus on visual aesthetics, exploring how to utilize snow resources in cold coastal cities for architectural design [67] to enhance the city’s winter charm. The research emphasizes the importance of considering regional characteristics and cultural backgrounds in the design process, as well as how to enhance the visual impact and artistic value of snow architecture through innovative design techniques [68]. Some scholars emphasize enhancing the experience and interactivity of snow architecture by satisfying people’s psychological needs through humanized innovative design [69].
Other scholars have found through statistical analysis of experimental data that the proportion of high-brightness snow in the entire visual field is negatively correlated with visual comfort [70]. Based on the analysis, the study proposes measures to reduce the proportion of high-brightness snow in the visual field through plant planting, terrain treatment, garden architecture design, and visual field control [48], increase architectural layers, enrich architectural colors, and thus enhance the visual comfort of snow architecture in outdoor environments.
There are also studies that start from specific cases, selecting the snow architecture at the Harbin Sun Island Garden Show [49], and specifically discussing its design, construction, and exhibition process. When designing, the characteristics of snow and specific needs should be considered, supplemented by various construction methods such as wooden pile support and the addition of other building materials, to solve the problem of low strength and poor ductility of snow [29]. In addition, during the exhibition process, climatic restrictions and technical challenges are faced, such as poor weathering resistance and insufficient structural strength [50], which need to be resolved by introducing advanced technology.
In terms of theoretical system design, some scholars start from the single perspective of landscape-type theory research and creatively propose a snow landscape design system for northern China. Through typological methods, they refine the design prototypes and principles of snow landscapes, and combined with field surveys and case analysis, form a design system with regional and cultural characteristics. Some scholars take a different approach, using streets as a fixed research scenario to explore the creation of street snow landscapes with integrity, continuity, and interactivity, and propose principles and ideas for the transformation of seasonal transitional natural snow landscapes [51].
In addition, the sustainability and eco-friendliness of snow architecture have received widespread attention. Researchers are exploring how to use renewable resources and environmentally friendly materials to construct snow buildings, ensuring their minimal impact on the environment [71], fully reflecting the advantages of recyclable snow materials, reduced energy consumption, and decreased carbon emissions. These studies not only innovate in the design methods of snow architecture but also reflect the concern and thought about the development of the snow architecture field in the selection of application scenarios.

4. Research Status of Snow Architecture Structure and Construction Technology

The uniqueness of snow materials makes its structure and construction methods distinctive. In recent years, with the rise of snow tourism and the demand for polar development, the research and development of snow-building structures have gradually received attention. Research on the construction technology of snow buildings has also been progressively unfolding. Some scholars both domestically and internationally have begun to focus on the safe construction conditions of snow buildings, achieving preliminary results [50,72].
The construction techniques of traditional snow architecture focus on masonry, tamping, and carving [52,73]. With the development of time and technological innovation, snow buildings with both internal space and artistic expression began to emerge. Compared to traditional snow architecture, their spatial functions and structural forms are more diverse, and the construction methods are more complex [18,74,75].
Currently, there are four methods of snow architecture construction: the first is to compact and then hollow out, compacting the collected snow in layers, and after meeting the requirements, hollowing out the inside. This method of construction is widely used and has certain limitations in terms of span, height, and appearance, but it is still the mainstream method of construction. The Finnish Polar Star Snow Space was completed in January 2023, a 12 m high white cube built with 3000 m3 of compacted snow, by a company. It has a lifespan of seven weeks and superior lighting conditions, and the spacious central conference room is designed as a brand showroom, becoming a novel venue for meetings and events. The second method is to use naturally collected snow blocks for masonry. The most representative example is the igloos of the Inuit people in the Arctic region. The third method is the construction technique using rigid formwork compaction. The mold is processed according to the design shape, and after filling the mold with snow, carving can be performed from the inside. The fourth method is the construction technique using flexible formwork spraying. Using air films, etc., as templates, layers of ice and snow mixture are sprayed to ensure thorough freezing, and finally, the inflatable film is removed to complete the construction.
The Finnish Institute of Engineers (RIL) has published a series of professional standards, codes of practice, and manuals, including the RIL 218-2002 [50] “Snow Constructions: General Rules for Design and Construction” published in 2002, which is the world’s first snow construction code, providing reference standards and technical support for the construction of snow buildings. The content includes structural design, analysis under limit states, analysis of serviceability limit states, accident limit states, architectural design, construction, and quality control. The section on snow building construction covers steps such as snowmaking, snow material processing, formwork erection, and formwork removal. It introduces precautions when using natural and machine-made snow, and provides corresponding construction methods according to different materials of formwork. The most common is rigid formwork, such as steel–wood formwork and metal formwork, and there are also some flexible formworks, such as inflatable membranes. Compared with flexible formwork, rigid formwork has strong load-bearing capacity and structural strength, allowing snow to be transferred to the rigid formwork for compaction, increasing snow density. Snow material processing methods include manual compaction and mechanical compaction. For snow-building components with indoor space, such as walls and domes, manual compaction is usually used. Mechanical compaction can use snow presses or other methods to compact snow. The order of formwork removal and carving can be flexibly adjusted according to different carving positions.
The domestic standard “Technical Standard for Ice and Snow Scenic Architecture (GB 51202-2016 [76])” was issued in 2016, which preliminarily regulated the construction measurement, snowmaking, and snow sculpture production of snow architecture [76]. However, the content is relatively simple and lacks specific guidance based on engineering practice. Overall, there is still a lack of systematic research to improve the safety of snow architectural structures. According to Finnish standards, structures need to monitor the tension and deformation that occur during their service life, including routine maintenance inspections and long-term monitoring. If one of the limit values, such as structural depression, tilt, fracture, or collapse, is reached within the service life of the snow structure, the use of the structure must be stopped [77]. The current standard can only check part of the bearing capacity limit state and cannot check the normal-use limit state. Further research is needed on the mechanical properties of snow materials to deepen the understanding of the failure mechanism of snow materials and supplement relevant structural design methods.

5. Technical Exploration and Practice of Snow Architecture

Based on the research of snow materials, actual construction and building using snow materials were carried out. The Snow Hotel is an auxiliary building for the 2022–2023 Sun Island International Snow Sculpture Art Expo (Figure 8), designing a combination of snow culture and snow symbols, with the architectural prototype drawn from snowflakes. Snowflakes symbolize purity and immaculateness, while the saying “a good snow forecasts a good harvest” is a widely circulated proverb. Patches of snowflakes fall on Sun Island, adding a unique shine to the snow architecture group. This snow building has a hotel as its main function, with the addition of commercial facilities such as bars, combining indoor and outdoor spaces, meeting functional requirements while creating a multi-dimensional and diverse spatial atmosphere experience. Transforming traditional snow architecture into commercially operable snow architectural products enhances its economic value. Adopting safe and reliable snow shell structures, combined with digital design means and complete and rapid construction processes, it possesses strong safety and adaptability, dedicated to the integration of snow architecture technology and art.
Structural calculation and analysis of the snow hotel are as follows. Simulate the stress state of the structure under different working conditions, judge whether the structure is out of limit, and find out the weak point of the structure stress [78]. The structure plane is hexagonal, the center height is 10 m, the span is 12 m, the unit heights are 4.4 m and 4.5 m, respectively, and the unit spans are 4.4 m and 6 m, respectively, and the geometric model is as follows (Figure 9).
The structure adopts a compaction method, with the density of machine-made snow being at least 550 kg/m3 at −15 °C. The strength reference values, without considering material nonlinearity, are 0.043 MPa and 0.164 MPa for tensile and compressive strength design values, respectively. Multiple compactions are employed, with each compaction layer having a maximum thickness of 20 cm. The ABAQUS finite element analysis software is used to model and calculate the main structure [79], and to analyze its safety under actions such as self-weight and snow loads. After determining the material density, elastic modulus, structural thickness, and boundary conditions, loads and constraints are applied [53]. The specific structural calculation parameters are as follows (Table 2). The material model is linearly elastic, the element type is C3D10 tetrahedral, the mesh type is unstructured with free division and a size of 1.0 m, and the boundary condition is fixed at the bottom. The total mass of the structure is 389.7 t.
According to the structural load code, the basic snow pressure of Harbin city with a recurrence period of 50 years is taken as 0.45 kN/m2. The roof is assumed to be arch-shaped, and two conditions, half-span and uniform distribution, are considered. The roof snow distribution coefficients are 0.4 and 1.0, respectively, and the standard values of snow loads are 0.18 kN/m2 and 0.45 kN/m2. The basic wind pressure with a recurrence period of 10 years is taken as 0.35 kN/m2, the ground roughness is category B, the maximum height of the structure is 10.0 m, and the wind pressure height variation coefficient is taken as 1.0. Only one horizontal wind direction angle is considered, and according to the “Code for Building Structural Load”, the wind load shape coefficient is taken as ±0.5.
At this point, the maximum displacement of the structure is 2.7 mm (Figure 10), and its maximum tensile stress and compressive stress values are 0.028 MPa and 0.16 MPa, respectively (Figure 11 and Figure 12). The calculation results show that the displacement and stress response of the structure under the action of its own weight and snow load have not exceeded the allowable range of the structure and the ultimate strength of the material, and the structure has not exceeded the limit. This calculation refers to the technical manual of the Finnish Engineer Association (RIL) and only analyzes the safety of the structure within the linear elastic range. The extreme values of the main stress of the structure have not exceeded the tensile and compressive strength of the material, and the deformation of the structure is within the allowable range. When the ambient temperature changes significantly, the deformation of the structure should be monitored in time. To avoid the impact of temperature on the construction of the structure, it is recommended that construction personnel try to spray in the evening.
In the winter of 2022, a practical experiment of compacting and hollowing out small snow structure models was conducted. The structures were built using natural snow materials, and after two consecutive days of static hardening, the construction method of first stacking and then hollowing out was adopted (Figure 13, Figure 14 and Figure 15). The final structure had a height of 0.5 m, a width of 0.8 m, and a thickness of 7 cm.
In the winter of 2023, a snow building measuring 3 m × 3 m × 2.5 m was constructed in the fourth Harbin Institute of Technology International Snow Building Festival and the 2023 “Ingenious Heart, Building with Snow” University Snow Building Competition. Using tools to carve and cut snow blocks, it met the requirements of structural construction (such as structural stability and functional construction) and architectural physics (such as introducing sunlight and blocking cold wind), while focusing on usability. The design inspiration came from the structure of fruit shells, with the fruit shell shape being cut out of the cubic block (Figure 16). A viewing port for observing the starry sky or sunlight was set up on the top, closely connected to the interior of the building. The inner passage space adopted a combination of “stairway + slide” to enhance the spatial experience of interaction between visitors and the outside world. The construction was carried out on machine-made snow blanks (Figure 17), which are porous materials. After compacting and setting, they were hollowed out for construction (Figure 18), and the surface hole texture was clearly visible. The structural thickness was based on existing codes and experience, with a thickness of 15 cm and a length of 2.3 m along the major axis. After completion, it attracted many students and tourists to experience the snow stairs, snow slides, and snow spaces, becoming a unique check-in point in the school (Figure 19, Figure 20 and Figure 21).
In early 2024, using similar methods, three snow structures were built in the Sun Island Scenic Area in Harbin. On a 2 m × 2 m × 2.5 m machine-made snow blank, small snow caves were formed through internal hollowing and external modification (Figure 22, Figure 23 and Figure 24). A one-month post-construction monitoring of the snow structures was conducted, and relevant data were collected. The three trials preliminarily verified the possibility of using snow materials to build shell structures, and further engineering practices will be carried out subsequently.
For the monitoring of snow shell structures, the following plans can be applied, including quality inspection plans (Table 3), structural dimension measurement (Table 4), snow shell thickness measurement (Table 5), and material strength testing (Table 6). When measuring the dimensions of the snow shell structure, a 3D scanner can be used to measure the overall shape of the snow shell structure [54,55], comparing the design plan with the actual structural shape data. In measuring the structure’s thickness, the thickness at different locations is measured by drilling, and the measurement points are numbered. The numbering principle is as follows: the first item indicates the elevation of the measurement point, the second item is the serial number of that measurement point, and the measurement results are recorded. Moreover, through experimental tests, actual structural compressive strength, tensile strength, and other related index data can be obtained, clarifying whether the measured strength of the snow materials meets the structural design requirements [80].

6. Conclusions and Future Outlook

Snow architecture has broad developmental prospects, with significant room for improvement in all aspects, from its architectural design, materials, and structural construction to operation and maintenance.
Conducting systematic research on machine-made snow and fully utilizing its material properties is the main direction of current research. The experience of related material property research on ice materials can be used to carry out mechanical property research on snow materials. Firstly, the mechanical property test standards for snow materials are formulated by referring to the test ideas of ice materials [81,82,83]. Appropriate molds are used to prepare test pieces for compressive strength, tensile strength, shear strength, and other tests of snow materials. In addition, a creep test device suitable for snow materials is designed to conduct creep tests on snow materials [84,85]. The ultimate strength and macro- and microscopic failure modes are observed and recorded in detail [86]. On this basis, numerical research is carried out for short-term and long-term mechanical properties [56], respectively based on the continuous damage theory and creep mechanics model, and finite element analysis is conducted from the microscopic level [87,88]. Furthermore, the analysis results are introduced at the macro level to develop the ABAQUS constitutive user subroutine (UMAT), establishing the basic constitutive model and creep constitutive model of snow materials [89].
Using a combination of experimental research and numerical analysis [57], the failure mechanism of snow structures under load and environmental changes is explored. A refined finite element model considering material deformation characteristics is established to study the variation in the ultimate bearing capacity of the structure over time under creep effects and environmental temperature changes [62]. Based on this, parameters affecting structural response, as well as phenomena such as snow melting, are analyzed, providing the response limits of the structure [58,59]. Structural failure loading tests are conducted to observe the crack propagation process and failure modes of the structure [90], proposing an effective safety performance evaluation method for snow-building structures.
For snow architecture with an internal space, the issue of safety is crucial. The development of intelligent operation and maintenance is rapid and can also be applied to the health monitoring and safety early warning of snow buildings [60]. The structure is significantly affected by environmental factors and requires remote monitoring and structural mechanical performance analysis [91]. Snow structures exhibit creep characteristics in low-temperature environments. Based on basic technical means such as total stations and gratings, existing non-contact geometric observation, stress and strain collection, temperature and humidity collection, and other information collection technologies should be improved to achieve remote geometric information collection and structural response data collection of snow structures [92], measuring key point displacements, thickness changes, and surface changes in the structure [93]. In case of discovered structural safety issues, timely early warnings should be issued to reduce losses [94]. One unavoidable issue for snow buildings is the low temperature. If the temperature inside the snow building can be regulated [95], it would greatly help improve human comfort, which is of significant assistance for the subsequent operation of snow buildings.
In the future, based on multi-angle and multi-level technical research and engineering practices, the architectural functions, aesthetics, and structural advancements of snow architecture will be organically integrated. More and more snow buildings with lightweight and variable designs, rich artistic expression, and diverse functions will be presented to the world. There is an expectation that snow structure technology will be applied in a broader space.

Funding

This research was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (grant number 51978207).

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. Compression test of snow material [9].
Figure 1. Compression test of snow material [9].
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Figure 2. Tensile test of snow material [17].
Figure 2. Tensile test of snow material [17].
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Figure 3. Snow material shear test [18].
Figure 3. Snow material shear test [18].
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Figure 4. Other tests of snow materials (a) Measurement of snow density. (b) Snow Spectral data acquisition using field spectrometer [28].
Figure 4. Other tests of snow materials (a) Measurement of snow density. (b) Snow Spectral data acquisition using field spectrometer [28].
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Figure 5. Material property test of ice material [29].
Figure 5. Material property test of ice material [29].
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Figure 6. Calculation example of damaged area in simulated snow microstructure (Images (a,b) show the distribution of damaged regions across the column before the specimen ultimately fails. Image (c) shows the set of material points still connected to the platens at the end of the simulation. Note the triangle guide illustrating the angle of the fracture surface. Image (d) shows zoomed in regions of damaged neck regions between different colored grains) [41].
Figure 6. Calculation example of damaged area in simulated snow microstructure (Images (a,b) show the distribution of damaged regions across the column before the specimen ultimately fails. Image (c) shows the set of material points still connected to the platens at the end of the simulation. Note the triangle guide illustrating the angle of the fracture surface. Image (d) shows zoomed in regions of damaged neck regions between different colored grains) [41].
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Figure 7. Compilation of experimental research on the mechanical properties of snow materials [1,6,7,8,9,11,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,25,27,28,29,33,35,39,40,42,47,48,49,50,51,52,53,54,55,56,57,58,59,60,61,62,63,64,66].
Figure 7. Compilation of experimental research on the mechanical properties of snow materials [1,6,7,8,9,11,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,25,27,28,29,33,35,39,40,42,47,48,49,50,51,52,53,54,55,56,57,58,59,60,61,62,63,64,66].
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Figure 8. Effect drawing.
Figure 8. Effect drawing.
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Figure 9. Geometric model of the structure (The yellow lines in the figure represent the reference plane when generating the geometric model).
Figure 9. Geometric model of the structure (The yellow lines in the figure represent the reference plane when generating the geometric model).
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Figure 10. Structure displacement nephogram.
Figure 10. Structure displacement nephogram.
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Figure 11. Cloud chart of structural tensile stress.
Figure 11. Cloud chart of structural tensile stress.
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Figure 12. Cloud chart of structural compressive stress.
Figure 12. Cloud chart of structural compressive stress.
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Figure 13. Stacking first.
Figure 13. Stacking first.
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Figure 14. Rear hollowing.
Figure 14. Rear hollowing.
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Figure 15. Shell model.
Figure 15. Shell model.
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Figure 16. Schematic design.
Figure 16. Schematic design.
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Figure 17. Machine-made snow body.
Figure 17. Machine-made snow body.
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Figure 18. Excavation construction.
Figure 18. Excavation construction.
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Figure 19. Overall effect.
Figure 19. Overall effect.
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Figure 20. Interior viewport.
Figure 20. Interior viewport.
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Figure 21. Snow slide experience.
Figure 21. Snow slide experience.
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Figure 22. Three machine-made snow cubes.
Figure 22. Three machine-made snow cubes.
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Figure 23. Internal hollowing.
Figure 23. Internal hollowing.
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Figure 24. Surface treatment.
Figure 24. Surface treatment.
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Table 1. Comparison of numerical simulation methods for snow material failure.
Table 1. Comparison of numerical simulation methods for snow material failure.
Research MethodsSpecific ContentRelevant Evaluation
Finite element methodSnow with a density greater than 0.6 can be considered a continuous medium.Elastic–plastic + thermal damage
Discrete element methodUsing discrete element software analysis, a bond between particles is established.Critical strain of snow-to-ice transformation
Near-field dynamicsSnowflake shapes, type I-h single-crystal ice, snow is modeled as an ensemble of ice single crystals with random orientations, isotropic Norton creep law.Constitutive model of ice material
Table 2. Structural calculation parameters.
Table 2. Structural calculation parameters.
Parameter NameParameter Value
Material density510 kg/m3
Modulus of elasticity162 MPa
Poisson’s ratio0.3
Calculate the thickness of the structure1.5 m
−15 °C tensile strength0.043 MPa
−15 °C compressive strength0.164 MPa
Table 3. Inspection scheme and control index for the quality of snow structure.
Table 3. Inspection scheme and control index for the quality of snow structure.
Serial NumberDetect ContentControl Indicators
1Structural morphometryStructural spanThe comparison deviation with the design model is less than 10%.
Height of structure
2Measurement of structural thicknessThickness of snow shellThe thickness of the snow shell structure at different positions should not be less than that required by the construction drawings.
3Material strength testCompressive strengthControlling the uniaxial compressive strength of artificial and natural snow.
Tensile strengthControlling the uniaxial tensile strength of artificial and natural snow.
Table 4. Comparison of snow structure outline data.
Table 4. Comparison of snow structure outline data.
Dimension (m)Snow Shell Design SchemeActual Snow Shell StructureDeviation
Inner diameter1.81.658%
Height2.32.24%
Table 5. Comparison of snow cover thickness data.
Table 5. Comparison of snow cover thickness data.
Snow ShellElevation (m)Design Thickness (mm)Measuring PointMeasured Thickness (mm)
Kamakura+0.600170.0J-Z1, J-Z2, J-Z33, J-Z34Left side 218, Right side 151
+0.800160.0J-Z3, J-Z4, J-Z31, J-Z32Left side 240, Right side 161
+1.200150.0J-Z5, J-Z6, J-Z29, J-Z30Left side 275, Right side 170
+1.400140.0J-Z7, J-Z8, J-Z27, J-Z28Left side 278, Right side 155
+1.600130.0J-Z9, J-Z10, J-Z25, J-Z26Left side 258, Right side 80
+1.800120.0J-Z11, J-Z12, J-Z23, J-Z24Left side 200, Right side 108
+2.000110.0J-Z13, J-Z14, J-Z21, J-Z22Left side 148, Right side 140
Table 6. Comparison of snow material strength data.
Table 6. Comparison of snow material strength data.
Test ConditionsMaterialCompressive Strength (MPa)Tensile Strength (MPa)
Design ValueStandard ValueDesign ValueStandard Value
−15 °C 550 kg/m3Machine-made snow0.2130.4050.0550.104
−15 °C 410 kg/m3Natural snow0.1380.2620.0430.082
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Sun, J.; Zhang, Q.; Zhang, G.; Fan, F. Building with Snow: Technical Exploration and Practice of Snow Materials and Snow Architecture. Buildings 2025, 15, 1277. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15081277

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Sun J, Zhang Q, Zhang G, Fan F. Building with Snow: Technical Exploration and Practice of Snow Materials and Snow Architecture. Buildings. 2025; 15(8):1277. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15081277

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Sun, Jianfeng, Qingwen Zhang, Guolong Zhang, and Feng Fan. 2025. "Building with Snow: Technical Exploration and Practice of Snow Materials and Snow Architecture" Buildings 15, no. 8: 1277. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15081277

APA Style

Sun, J., Zhang, Q., Zhang, G., & Fan, F. (2025). Building with Snow: Technical Exploration and Practice of Snow Materials and Snow Architecture. Buildings, 15(8), 1277. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15081277

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