A Study on the Living Behavior and Space Usage Preference of Residents in Traditional Huizhou Dwellings

Abstract

This study explores the challenges faced by traditional dwellings amid modernization and urbanization, with a particular focus on Huizhou dwellings, which struggle with issues such as inefficient space use and suboptimal spatial quality. This study employs UWB (ultra-wideband) indoor positioning technology to examine differences in residents’ production/living behaviors and their spatial usage preferences between two Huizhou traditional dwellings with distinct preservation statuses during both the summer and winter seasons. The study reveals the following findings: (1) The hall, courtyard, and kitchen spaces are the most frequently used living areas, followed by wing rooms and patio spaces. Differences in spatial organization patterns significantly influence residents’ preferences for alternating between various functional spaces. Residents tend to favor functional spaces centered around or adjacent to key circulation areas; (2) In summer, the patio space provides shade and ventilation, creating a cool and comfortable environment that supports a variety of living activities, resulting in high utilization rates. In winter, however, the patio space hinders heat retention for the inner facade, leading to lower temperatures and reduced usage; (3) The utilization rate of wing room spaces has significantly improved after simple renovations, whereas unrenovated wing rooms and side rooms exhibit relatively low utilization rates; (4) During fine weather in winter, the courtyard space maintains a relatively comfortable temperature, making it highly utilized. In contrast, the courtyard becomes excessively hot in summer, leading to significantly lower utilization rates compared with winter. By analyzing residents’ behavioral trajectories, the study explores the differences in living behaviors and their correlation with residential spaces across the different seasons and preservation states of traditional dwellings. These results offer important perspectives for the sustainable development of residential conservation and renewal efforts.

1. Introduction

1.1. Formation and Value of Chinese Traditional Villages

Throughout the course of human history, traditional dwellings have always been an important carrier to show the living needs and aesthetic concepts of various regions and nationalities in specific historical periods [1]. Over the long course of development, affected by various factors such as region, climate, mode of production, and cultural customs, people’s needs for living space and aesthetic concepts have changed, and Chinese traditional dwellings have gradually formed a variety of styles and types. These different types of dwellings show unique regional cultural characteristics in terms of architectural form, layout, and decoration [2,3]. In the existing traditional villages in China, a large number of traditional dwellings have been maintained, and they have rich historical, cultural, social, and economic values [4]. On the one hand, traditional dwellings carry the culture, customs, and folk skills passed down from generation to generation, reflecting the aesthetic taste and national characteristics of generations of residents: inherited moral concepts and ways of life. By studying the relationship between residents’ living behavior and the space environment, we can obtain a more profound insight into the cultural meaning, social customs, and historical background carried by traditional dwellings, which will help to reveal the value and significance of traditional dwellings, thereby improving people’s awareness of historical heritage protection and the importance of inheritance work [5,6]. Furthermore, this research offers both theoretical foundations and actionable recommendations for enhancing modern residential environments and elevating inhabitants’ living standards.

1.2. Historical Development and Protection Policy of Traditional Dwellings

Traditional dwellings carry many characteristics such as history, culture, lifestyle, and social economy. As urbanization and modernization advance, the protection of traditional dwellings around the world is facing many threats, such as insufficient funds, insufficient awareness of residents, lack of professional talents, natural disasters, and environmental degradation [7,8]. Therefore, strengthening the protection and cultural inheritance of traditional dwellings has become a common topic in the international community. Since the 1970s, many developed countries have formulated policies and regulations for the protection of traditional dwellings. For example, Japan has implemented the protection system of “important traditional buildings” since 1976, protecting traditional villages and dwellings with historical, cultural, and artistic value [9]. The United States has passed the National Historic Preservation Act to protect historical and cultural heritage [10], including traditional dwellings. The National Register of Historic Places registers and protects dwellings with historical, cultural, and architectural value. At the same time, these countries also publicize and promote the protection of traditional dwellings by setting up cultural heritage days and holding cultural heritage years to raise public awareness of cultural heritage protection.

At the start of the 21st century, China launched its “Traditional Village Preservation” initiative, creating a multi-tiered framework spanning national-, provincial-, municipal-, and county-level administrations to safeguard and revitalize these cultural heritage sites [11]. Initiated in 2012, China’s housing and urban–rural development authorities have been conducting systematic surveys of historic rural settlements through inter-ministerial collaboration with cultural and agricultural administrations. The “Chinese Traditional Village List” has included 8171 villages of significant value, organized into six batches. The establishment of a traditional village inventory facilitates the comprehensive preservation of settlements endowed with historical, cultural, and artistic significance, thereby ensuring the intergenerational transmission of their material and intangible heritage [12]. At the same time, China’s national and local governments have set up special funds for the protection, repair, and transformation of traditional villages, as well as for the general survey, excavation, sorting, research, and publicity of cultural heritage. Villages designated in the official registry qualify for a government grant of three million yuan dedicated to renovating aging vernacular residences and culturally significant landmarks. This funding mechanism has significantly enhanced conservation efforts, establishing China’s network of protected settlements as the world’s most extensive assemblage of safeguarded intangible cultural heritage.

1.3. Sustainable Development of Traditional Dwellings

The sustainable development of traditional dwellings in modern society faces many problems, such as the pressure of economic development and the difficulty in balancing protection and utilization. At present, the sustainable development of traditional dwellings is mainly achieved through the following methods. The first is protection and restoration: carry out the protective development of traditional dwellings, repair damaged and aging parts, and ensure that the structural safety and cultural value of the building are preserved [13,14]. The restoration project should use raw materials and traditional crafts as much as possible to maintain the historical style of the building [15]. The second is cultural inheritance: carry forward and inherit the historical culture, folk customs, and regional characteristics carried by traditional dwellings, and increase public awareness and support for traditional dwellings by holding exhibitions, seminars, education, and training activities [16,17,18]. The third is tourism development: incorporate traditional dwellings into the development of tourism resources; develop rural tourism, folk tourism, and other tourism formats; attract tourists to visit and experience; and realize the organic combination of traditional dwelling protection and economic development [19]. The fourth is community participation: encourage community residents to participate in the preservation of traditional dwellings, such as volunteer activities and public welfare donations. Strengthen residents’ understanding of the value of traditional dwellings, improve protection awareness, and form a diversified protection pattern [17]. The last is transformation and reuse: functional transformation and reuse of some traditional dwellings, such as opening homestays, art studios, cultural exchange centers, etc., to meet the needs of modern life while maintaining the historical features of the building [20].

1.4. Research Directions for the Conservation of Huizhou Traditional Dwellings

Scholars have conducted multidimensional research on the conservation of Huizhou traditional dwellings: (1) Architectural Thermal Comfort Studies: Zhang Xiaoxiao [21] investigated the winter issues of humidity, poor lighting, and inadequate insulation in typical courtyard-style dwellings. Through field measurements, they analyzed the thermal environments of courtyards, walls, and roofs, studying how the layout and morphology influence the winter thermal conditions. This provides theoretical foundations and renovation strategies for improving indoor environments [21]. Gao Rui [22] identified poor indoor lighting as a key challenge. By extracting critical daylighting parameters and conducting multi-/single-factor analyses using Honeybee (v1.5), they demonstrated that lowering the window sill heights while increasing the window and courtyard widths effectively enhances lighting quality [22]. Bian Mengyuan [23] developed seven optimized residential prototypes based on field surveys, utilizing Design Builder to refine the thermal environments and energy efficiency. The results showed that deep floor plans, enclosed spaces, and proper orientation improve comfort while reducing energy consumption, offering guidance for sustainable vernacular architecture [23]. (2) Cultural Value and Historical Research: Cen Kejie [24] compared Huizhou-style and Wu-style dwellings’ spatial layouts, revealing connections to Confucian cultural differences. Huizhou’s flexible spatial arrangements reflect merchant-class pragmatism, contrasting with the Wu-style standardized layouts that embody bureaucratic hierarchy, providing new perspectives for cultural studies [24]. Cao Zihao employed ethnography to document the historical craftsmanship and regional characteristics of Huizhou’s “Three Carvings” (door/window decorations), establishing a preservation framework for artisans and architects [25]. (3) Conservation–Regeneration Integration: Juan Chen explored the Huizhou dwellings’ ecological wisdom from a green building perspective. By analyzing the site selection, layout, and material strategies, they revealed how natural ventilation, lighting, and drainage systems align with modern sustainability principles. These findings bridge traditional ecological knowledge with contemporary green design [26]. (4) Digital Conservation and Virtual Reconstruction: Huang Zhijia [27] prototyped neo-Huizhou dwellings using Design Builder simulations. Optimizing fenestration systems and insulation materials improved lighting/thermal performance by 23–37%, providing actionable retrofit guidelines [27]. Su Jianming [28] decoded Huizhou’s spatial syntax (site planning, axiality, depth ratios) into computational algorithms. Their CAD-based generative design system automates Huizhou-style layout generation, verified through case studies, advancing digital heritage methodologies [28].

The research on the conservation of Huizhou traditional dwellings encompasses multiple aspects, including architectural restoration, thermal comfort improvement, cultural value exploration, adaptive reuse, and digital preservation. It involves both the scientific restoration of traditional structures and materials, as well as the study of the relationship between dwellings and regional culture and clan systems. Additionally, it explores community participation in revitalization, the application of digital technologies in conservation, and the collaborative governance of multi-level policy frameworks. This reflects an interdisciplinary approach and a balanced trend between preservation and development.

1.5. Research on the Relationship Between Residents’ Behavior and Spatial Environment

In the 1980s and 1990s, the study of traditional dwellings developed from a purely architectural viewpoint and method to a research viewpoint and method combining architecture with other disciplines, such as comprehensive methods, analytical methods, and comparative methods. Propelled by the exponential advancement of contemporary technologies, methods based on big data analysis, wearable device monitoring, and behavior observation are gradually applied to human behavior activities and trajectory tracking indoors and outdoors, and a visual analysis is performed using spatiotemporal behavior graphs.

(1)

Behavioral observation: Behavioral observation is the most frequently used approach to study people’s actions in relevant environments. Zeng Rui, Li Zao, and others used the behavior observation method to study the relationship between children’s behavior and the landscape environment in Chinese residential areas [29]. Hsieh Yenping used the behavioral observation method to study the effect of the number of residents on daily behavior in a Taiwan nursing institution [30]. Tang Shouni used the behavioral observation method to analyze the correlation between the characteristics of the ground floor interface of a commercial complex in Wuhan and the behavior of surrounding pedestrians [31]. Aryani Ni Putu explored the spatial needs of residents of social welfare housing in Surabaya, Indonesia through behavioral observation and interviews [32].

(2)

GNSS technology: Recent advancements in GNSS systems and big data analytics have facilitated innovative investigations into human-scale spatial behavior correlations. Modern GPS methodologies offer distinct benefits over conventional survey approaches through their capacity for uninterrupted quantitative data acquisition. Scholars across international research communities have consequently generated substantial findings in this interdisciplinary domain. Li Zao et al. [33] employed GPS tracking to study the after-school movement patterns of primary school students. By combining this with behavioral observation, they gained a comprehensive understanding of the students’ behaviors in specific spatial areas. They also analyzed the spatial composition and characteristics of the school surroundings, exploring how these factors influence student retention, and proposed strategies and management measures to enhance the space around the school [33]. Jie Zheng [34] used GPS to track the behavioral conflicts between tourists and villagers in the rural community space, and analyzed the spatial characteristics of spatial behavioral conflicts using the spatial behavioral conflict model and spatial grammar. Park Sohyun et al. used GPS technology to compare the walking patterns and neighborhood characteristics of residents in Seoul, South Korea and Seattle, USA, and analyzed the relationship between walking activities and street neighborhood environmental characteristics [35]. Ye Maosheng and Zeng Jun applied GPS technology to examine the behavior patterns of individuals in cultural and commercial areas, exploring the relationship between people’s retention behaviors and the elements of commercial spaces [36].

(3)

Indoor positioning technology: In recent years, indoor positioning technology has played an increasingly important role in the study of spatial behavior. Many scholars have conducted in-depth explorations of space and behavior in different scenarios using indoor positioning technology. Moreira Mariana used RFID positioning technology to analyze the impact of different outdoor environments in kindergartens on children’s social behavior [37]. Qu Xiaoyu et al. used RFID indoor positioning technology to analyze the use of personal rooms in the daily life of Chinese elderly couples [38]. Zhang Xinnan et al. used the UWB indoor positioning system to analyze the time and way that staff stay and move in personal and non-personal working environments [39]. Yang Lijing collected and analyzed the daily behavior data of retired family residents in Beijing through the UWB indoor positioning system, revealing that the spatial network structure through grid-level, convex polygon-level, and room-level analysis, and found that mutual visibility has a significant impact on family behavior [40]. Huang Weixin et al. used UWB indoor positioning technology to study the relationship between the living behavior of the elderly in urban housing and housing, and proposed a set of research processes from data collection, visualization, and analysis [41]. Jin Shan et al. used the UWB indoor positioning system to analyze the influence of the hybrid exhibition hall arrangement method and physical environment on exhibition viewing behavior [42]. To sum up, with the advancement of science and technology, the research methods of spatial behavior are constantly innovating. Traditional behavioral observation and interview methods are gradually combined with modern technologies, such as GNSS technology and big data analysis methods. More advanced technologies, such as the UWB indoor positioning system, provide new possibilities for the study of indoor spatial behavior.

Based on the UWB indoor positioning technology, this research analyzes the life trajectory characteristics of residents in traditional dwellings by collecting time and behavior data. At the same time, combined with behavior observation experiments, it reveals the actual state of residents’ daily life more accurately, and explores the relationship between residents’ living behavior and space. This study, employing these innovative methods, can help us to better understand the spatial characteristics of traditional dwellings and the lifestyles of residents. These research results can provide an important basis for the preservation of traditional dwellings, prompting us to fully consider the actual needs of residents and ensure the quality of life of residents in the process of protecting historical and cultural heritage. Combining the study of space behavior with the protection and sustainable development of traditional dwellings will help to improve the scientificity and effectiveness of the protection of traditional dwellings, and provide strong support for the sustainable development of traditional dwellings. At the same time, through in-depth research on the space of traditional dwellings, we can also discover the sustainable development potential of traditional dwellings in terms of energy saving, environmental protection, and humanistic care, and provide a valuable reference and inspiration for modern architectural design and urban planning. This study aims to achieve the following objectives: (1) To conclude the usage and differences in residents’ use of various functional spaces in traditional residential buildings; (2) To explore the usage and differences in residents’ use of residential space in different seasons.

The research contributes by offering an innovative analytical lens and systematized operational guidelines to inform subsequent studies on heritage dwelling revitalization, particularly in Huizhou and culturally comparable areas.

Under the typical and clear geographical constraints, this study mainly explores the following four research questions:

• Do different families and residents have different preferences for using each functional space?
• Do residents’ preferences for space use change in different seasons?
• Does the attribute of space have a fixed impact on the living behavior of residents?
• Does the space of different preservation states have different effects on the living behavior of the residents?

2. Methodology

2.1. Equipment Composition and UWB Principle

This study employs the K-ranging ultra-wideband (UWB) real-time positioning system, a bidirectional time-of-flight (ToF)-enabled indoor localization apparatus that was co-engineered through an interdisciplinary collaboration between Southeast University and Swiss R&D entity Nexiot AG. The K-ranging positioning system, including the tag (Tag), base station (Anchor), connection unit (router), and control side, the NexiotRTLS (v1.2) software, and the MySQL database. Each tag (signal transmitter) continuously sends signals through UWB pulses, which are received by the base station (positioning node). Each base station uses a high-sensitivity short-pulse detector to measure the arrival time of the signal, and then the operator of the central processing unit uses the calibration data of the receiver to determine the arrival time difference of each signal to obtain the distance and determine the location of the tag (Figure 1a).

Wireless devices often use distance-related positioning algorithms when positioning, that is, after obtaining the distance between the base station and the tag, the target position of the tag is estimated using the trilateration method. Existing UWB indoor positioning systems often use a variety of positioning methods by measuring the distances. The positioning method of the K-ranging positioning system used in this study is mainly the TOF positioning method. Time of flight is generally referred to as the TOF method. It is a method of calculating the distance by calculating the communication time difference between the base station and the tag: a precise grasp of the subject’s position (Figure 1b).

In Huizhou traditional dwellings, the complex environmental conditions required adjustments to the pre-designed base station layout after the preliminary surveying. During the installation across three sample dwellings, thick walls that hindered the signal penetration necessitated a strategic base station placement at functional space junctions, wooden partition walls, and window areas. The anchors were installed 2.1 m above floor level, powered by rechargeable batteries. To minimize signal interference from the human body (a high-water-content medium), experimental tags were mounted on participants’ shoulders using clasps, effectively reducing the signal distortion caused by body mass while maintaining measurement accuracy. Figure 1c and Figure 2 show the arrangement of the base stations in traditional dwellings and the state when the residents wear tags.

2.2. Data Processing

(1)

Sources of Experimental Error

During the preliminary experiments, occasional abnormal tag position jumps (e.g., sudden displacement from indoors to outside a window) were observed. This occurs because the base stations and control terminal communicate via wireless signals. If a base station temporarily disconnects, tags within its coverage area will measure distances with remote base stations, leading to position offsets or data loss. Optimizing the base station placement can mitigate such errors.

(2)

Data Preprocessing

Experimental data may contain deviations. Given the UWB system’s accuracy of ±30 cm, corrections were made by cross-referencing the behavioral observation logs. Key adjustments included: tag activation errors: since tags cannot pause recording, pre-activation before wearing (e.g., during distribution) could cause abnormal data points, which were filtered using distribution records; tag hibernation gaps: tags enter hibernation after 720 s of inactivity, resulting in data loss. Missing values were filled in based on the last recorded position (e.g., when residents placed tags on beds during naps); and out-of-coverage anomalies: If subjects moved beyond the base station coverage, the system might record boundary coordinates. Such outliers were removed using activity logs.

(3)

Data Correction

• First cleaning—speed filtering
  Normal indoor movement speeds range from 0.6 to 1.2 m/s. Adjacent points with calculated speeds > 2 m/s (indicating running) were flagged as outliers and removed.
• Data imputation—linear interpolation
  For the missing data segments, linear interpolation was applied, assuming linear changes between known points. Note: if hibernation caused data breaks, temporal segmentation was used to prevent erroneous fitting.
• Second cleaning—five-point moving average
  The trajectory data were treated as 2D sequences (ignoring height). The five-point moving average method replaced each point with the mean of its two preceding and two subsequent points, smoothing random noise to better reflect true movement patterns.

3. Residential Forms and Sample Selection

3.1. Basic Forms of Traditional Dwellings in Huizhou

The planes of traditional Huizhou dwellings are mainly divided into four types: “凹” planes, “回” planes, “H” planes, and “日” planes, each of which has its own specific form and combination [43]. Huizhou dwellings are mostly three bays and face south, the hall is arranged in the middle, and the wing rooms are located on the left and right sides of the hall. Due to the limitations of the natural and geographical environment, the courtyards of traditional Huizhou dwellings are generally small in scale, and often form continuous outdoor and semi-outdoor spaces with the patio space. The reason for the formation of patios comes from the social hierarchy ideology system, clan concept, and residents’ safety production and other needs. The patio not only has the basic functions of daily life, etiquette, labor, etc., but also can effectively adjust the indoor environment. On the one hand, the patio, as a transition space between the indoor and outdoor buildings, can play a role in connecting and buffering the indoor and outdoor space.

Through a large number of investigations on the traditional dwellings in Huizhou, it can be observed that most of the flat layout of the dwellings adopts the “凹” plane or its deformation derivative form. The “凹” plane form is also the most basic component of the plane layout of traditional Huizhou dwellings, and the residents living in the “凹” plane dwellings can better reflect the relationship between their lifestyles, usage preferences, and space. The “凹” type flat dwelling is the three-room style, commonly known as “one light and two dark”. The central bay is the hall, the two sides are wing rooms, and the stairs are set behind the wall of the master [43], this plane form is generally suitable for small dwellings, and it is also the most numerous plane form. The “凹” plane is the prototype of the different plane forms of traditional Huizhou dwellings. On this basis, the other plane forms can be obtained by copying, parallel series, and derivation (Figure 3).

Halls, patios, penthouses, and wing rooms are unique spatial forms in Huizhou dwellings, and their plane organization model reflects the centuries-old clan ritual system in Huizhou [44]. In the traditional dwellings of northern China, the halls are typically enclosed, and the door separates the hall from the courtyard [45], while the halls of traditional Huizhou dwellings face the patio space directly and have a direct relationship with the outdoor environment. Pan Guxi pointed out in “History of Chinese Architecture” that there were multiple barriers, such as courtyard space, space under the eaves, and space under the corridor, between the outdoor natural space and indoor living space of ancient Chinese people, and the neutral space between the two poles is the Chinese tradition, building a multi-level concrete representation [46]. Kisho Kurokawa [47] once proposed the concept of gray space in “Japanese Gray Tone Culture”. In terms of the type of architectural space, in addition to the internal space and external space, there is also a gray space between the indoors and outdoors. It has the characteristics of a half-indoor and half-outdoor space [47]. Whether in traditional Chinese architecture or in modern Japanese architecture, due to the existence of gray space, through its intermediary, connection, foreshadowing, and transition role, the boundary between the interior space and exterior space has long been broken, and the two spaces of different natures have become a fusion [48]. As shown in Figure 4, in Huizhou dwellings, the enclosures of courtyards, patios, halls, penthouses, and wing rooms are gradually enhanced. From the completely outdoor courtyard space to the closed wing space, patios and halls are used as gray spaces to infiltrate the inner and outer spaces, which also reflects the Confucianism contained in Huizhou dwellings.

3.2. Sample Selection

Pingshan Village, with a history exceeding 1100 years, is situated at the base of Pingfeng Mountain and Jiyang Mountain in the northeast of Yixian County, Huangshan City. It was included in the first batch of the Chinese Traditional Villages List at the end of 2012. There are more than 1000 protected buildings and dwellings in the Ming and Qing Dynasties, and it has a good research foundation and conditions. This paper selects typical “concave” flat-panel dwellings—dwelling A (Shu residence in Qing Dynasty) and dwelling B (Shu Jinyang residence)—as the research objects (Figure 5). The data collection is divided into winter and summer. The summer is from 7–9 September 2019, the weather is sunny, and the temperature is about 22 °C to 37 °C; the winter is from 21–23 January 2021, the weather is sunny, and the temperature is about 0 °C to 9 °C. The experiment obtained 3-day path trajectory data on each inhabitant in dwellings A and B. At the same time, combined with the behavior observation experiment, the experimental data were screened and sorted.

Household A family members consisted of the male owner (AM54) and his spouse (AW53), and household B family members consisted of the male owner (BM70), his spouse (BW68), and their granddaughters (BW12) (

Table 1. Overview of residences A and B.

Residential Sample	Overview of Dwellings	Plane Type	Gender	Age	Family Member Relationship	Member’s Number
Dwelling A	It was built in the late Qing Dynasty, about 120 years ago, and it is in good condition	“凹” plane	male	54	middle-aged couple	AM54
			female	53		AW53
Dwelling B	Founded in the Republic of China, about 90 years ago, it is in good condition	“凹” plane	male	70	elderly couple and their granddaughter	BM70
			female	68		BW68
			female	12		BW12

). The China Aging Research Center has conducted two surveys on China’s elderly population in ten provinces in recent years. The data show that there are about 32.88 million empty-nest (empty-nest families: single households, married households) and quasi-empty-nest families (quasi-empty-nest families: intergenerational households (the elderly live with their minor grandchildren or grandchildren, often referred to as “left-behind families”); two-generation elderly households (the elderly live with their parents); households with other people (the elderly live with their siblings or caregivers)) in the rural elderly population, accounting for 48.9% of the total number of rural elderly families. The number of middle-aged empty-nest families (middle-aged empty-nest families: with the first generation of only children in China leaving the family, the “empty nest phenomenon” that appeared in the elderly population in the past is showing a trend of “middle-aged”, which is called the “middle-aged empty nest” phenomenon) has also increased year by year [49]. Young children go out to work or move to cities, and children being left behind is a common phenomena in rural families [50], which makes middle-aged and elderly empty-nest families and quasi-empty-nest families common family structures in Huizhou and even in rural China. The sample family structure selected in this study is relatively typical, and the daily life of the residents in the two dwellings is directly related to the spatial combination of the dwellings, which provides a good foundation for this study.

After investigation, other auxiliary spaces are added vertically on the basis of the “concave” plane in the plane form of residential dwelling A, which mainly transitions from the hall space to the other spaces. A horizontal corridor is formed between the wing room space and the side room space of residential dwelling B, which connects the auxiliary spaces with different functions at both ends. The original furnishings, such as the Eight Immortals table, Taishi chairs, and strips, are preserved in the halls of the two residences.

At the same time, modern furniture and electrical appliances, such as sofas, coffee tables, refrigerators, and TVs, have been added to the hall. The kitchen retains the traditional earth stove, but also adds a gas stove, as well as an old sofa or dining table and chairs. Stone benches, dustpans, and other utensils have been placed in the courtyard. The storage room and the side room are used as storage functions, and no furniture is arranged for stacking daily sundries.

4. Kernel Density Feature Analysis

The kernel density estimation is a method that is used in probability theory to estimate unknown density functions and is classified as a nonparametric testing technique [51]. The kernel density analysis is effective for observing people’s staying behavior and movement patterns. It directly shows the locations where people stay, the size of the area, and helps to reveal how space influences the nature of people’s activities. This method can be used to understand the characteristics and spatial distribution of residents’ movements (Figure 6).

4.1. Trajectory and Density Distribution Characteristics of Different Households and Residents

As can be seen in Figure 6, the kernel density distributions of the inhabitant trajectories of the two households are generally similar, but there are also slight differences. The core density of the trajectory of the two residents in family A is mainly distributed in the wing room, hall, courtyard, and kitchen space. Compared with family A, the trajectory kernel density of the three residents in family B is mainly distributed in the patio, hall, courtyard, and kitchen space. The analysis of the common area of the distribution of the trajectory core density of the two households shows that the use of the hall, courtyard, and kitchen space is consistent, which shows that the hall, courtyard, and kitchen space are the most important spaces used by residents in Huizhou dwellings.

The distribution of the trajectory kernel density is also different for different inhabitants. From the areas p and q in Figure 6, it can be seen that the resident AM54 mainly has a high kernel density peak in the wing room, a moderate kernel density peak in the washing area in the courtyard, and a relatively low kernel density peak in the kitchen space and the rest area in the hall. Resident AW53 mainly has a high kernel density peak in the wing space, a moderate kernel density peak in the washing area, kitchen space, and hall space in the courtyard, and a relatively low kernel density peak in the drying area in the courtyard. From the r, s, and t regions in Figure 6, it can be seen that BM70 mainly has a high core density peak in the hall space, and a moderate core density peak in the patio space and kitchen space; BW68 is mainly in the hall space, kitchen space, and courtyard. The rinsing area has a higher peak density of kernel density, and there is a lower peak density of core density in the patio space and the other areas of the courtyard. The density peak value of the resident BW68 basically covers the four main functional spaces of the hall, kitchen, courtyard, and patio; BW12 has a high peak core density mainly in the hall space, and a moderate peak core density in the patio space and courtyard space. The core density peak value of BW12 is mainly distributed in the linear space composed of the hall, patio, and courtyard.

4.2. Differences in the Distribution of Inhabitants’ Trajectory Kernel Density in Different Seasons

From the areas a, c, g, and m in Figure 6, it can be seen that there are great differences in the distribution of the trajectory kernel density of residents in the patio space in different seasons. In summer, most residents produced more moderate-intensity kernel density peaks in the patio space; on the contrary, in winter, most residents produced fewer kernel density peaks in the patio space. This shows that in summer, residents have a higher utilization rate of patio space, whereas in winter, the utilization rate is lower.

From the areas b, d, j, and n in Figure 6, it can be seen that there are great differences in the distribution of the trajectory kernel density of residents in the courtyard space in different seasons. In summer, most residents produced fewer peaks of kernel density in the courtyard space; on the contrary, in winter, most residents produced high or moderate intensity of kernel density peaks in the courtyard space. This shows that in summer, the residents’ utilization rate of courtyard space is lower, and conversely, the utilization rate is higher in winter.

From the areas e, h, and k in Figure 6, it can be seen that there are large differences in the distribution of the trajectory kernel density of families in the hall space in different seasons. In summer, the three residents of family A produced a high-intensity kernel density peak distribution in the sofa area; in winter, the three residents produced a high-intensity kernel density peak distribution in the heating fire bucket area. This shows that in different seasons, the functional attributes of the furniture will affect the distribution of the residents’ use of space.

It can be seen from the difference in the kernel density distribution of the residents in dwellings A and B that the living space usage preferences of the two residents are generally similar, but there are also subtle differences between different families and different residents. The hall, courtyard, and kitchen space are the most frequently used living spaces, while the wing rooms and patio spaces are secondary living spaces. In different seasons: in summer, residents have a higher utilization rate of the patios and a lower utilization rate of the courtyard space; in winter, residents have a lower utilization rate of the patios and a higher utilization rate of the courtyard space.

5. Behavioral Observation

Behavioral observation experiments refer to observation and experimental activities that observe, record, and analyze the specific behaviors of subjects in a specific environment. Behavioral observation can directly record the behaviors of the subjects, and accurately reflect all the activities of the subjects. In order to accurately reveal the actual state of the residents’ daily life, a behavioral observation experiment was conducted for 3 days, from 6:00 to 21:00 every day, and the types and locations of behaviors were recorded every 10 mins. In order not to affect the lives of residents as much as possible and to reflect the life behaviors, photography assistance and high-level observation were used in the experiment, and the types and distribution of life behaviors were drawn (Figure 7).

5.1. Behavior Distribution Differences of Residents in Different Families

Comparing the living behavior distribution of the two households, the distribution of the living behavior types of the residents in each functional space is generally similar, but there is a big difference in the wing space. The frequency of use of the wing room space in residential dwelling A is significantly higher than that in residential dwelling B. An on-site investigation and interviews found that the wing space of residential dwelling A has been renovated in the later stage, and the increased window area brings better lighting and ventilation, so the more comfortable environment creates more behavior possibilities for residential dwelling A. However, the wing room of the unrenovated residential dwelling B is closed, dark, and poorly ventilated (Figure 8).

5.2. Differences in Residents’ Behavior in Different Seasons

By analyzing the data on the residents’ behavior in different seasons, the behavior types and numbers of residents in families A and B in the patio space in summer are significantly higher than those in winter. The better ventilation of the patio space in summer creates a cool environment for the residents, which is conducive to the residents’ living behaviors, whereas in winter, it brings more cold air, the temperature is lower, and the living behaviors of the residents are reduced. The hall space and kitchen space have roughly the same utilization rate in summer and winter. As important living spaces, they carry relatively fixed behavior types of the residents. The types and numbers of residents’ life behaviors in the courtyard space are quite different in summer and winter, and in summer, the types and numbers of the residents’ life behaviors are less than those in winter.

6. Time–Space Series Analysis

6.1. Time and Space Sequence of Residential Life Trajectory

In the spatiotemporal big data environment, the spatiotemporal sequence is often used as an important spatial analysis and behavior visualization method [52]. In the study of living space, it is worth paying attention to how family members use each functional space in different time periods. By observing the time–space sequence of different residents and establishing the time–space correspondence of each family member, the changes in people’s stay in each functional space during the day can be mined. In order to exclude the walking behavior of the residents in real life, the study recorded the residents staying in a space for more than 1 min or more as a stop. This section takes the resident AW53 as an example, analyzes their stay in each functional space in different time periods in summer and winter, and intuitively obtains the residents’ preference for each functional space and the time distribution (Figure 9 and Figure 10).

It can be seen from Figure 9 that in summer and winter, the space with the highest proportion of resident AW53’s usage time is the wing space, which accounts for 55% in summer and 45% in winter. In addition, in summer, resident AW53 shuttles back and forth in the hall, courtyard, and kitchen space at 07:00–09:00, 12:00–13:00, and 17:00–19:00; in winter, resident AW53 alternates between 15:00–17:30 in the courtyard and the kitchen space.

6.2. Spatial Stay Time Analysis

According to the time–space series data of each inhabitant, we can divide the stay time into different levels. If it is less than 1 min, it can be considered that the observed person is moving in the space. A short stay is 1–10 min, a momentary stay is 10–30 min, a long stay is 30–60 min, and a continuous stay is more than 60 min; the frequency table of the residence time of each inhabitant in each space can be counted (

Table 2. Statistics on the frequency of stay in residential dwelling A spaces.

	AM54				AW53
	1–10 min	1–30 min	30–60 min	>60 min	1–10 min	1–30 min	30–60 min	>60 min
went out	2	5	3	3	1	4	1	3
bathroom	9	6			15	3
wing 1	45	12	12	6	54	12	12	9
wing 2					1
hall	60	10	2		61	13	3
patio	18	3			25	3
courtyard	61	6	5	3	75	15	12	6
kitchen	75	6	3		81	9	6	3
vegetable garden	6	3			12	3	3
utility room	9				5
went out	9	3	3			3		3
bathroom	12	6			12	9
wing 1	60	15	12	6	72	12	12	9
wing 2					2
hall	70	11	3		68	9	3
patio	24	6			36	6
courtyard	96	5	6	3	90	16	8	5
kitchen	80	5	4		63	6	5	3
vegetable garden	10	3			15	3	3
utility room	12		1		8	1

). It can be seen from Table 2 that different families spend different time in each space, which indicates that they have different preferences and usage time for each functional space.

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Differences in residents’ stay duration across functional spaces

It can be seen from Table 2 and

Table 3. Statistics on the frequency of stay in residential dwelling B spaces.

		BM70				BW68				BW12
		1–1 min	1–3 min	3–6 min	>6 min	1–1 min	1–3 min	3–6 min	>6 min	1–1 min	1–3 min	3–6 min	>6 min
Summer	went out		2		5	3	2			7	3
	bathroom	9	6			19	6			6	6
	wing 1	6				6	3			5	3
	wing 2	3				3			3	3
	hall	82	6	6		60	5	6		45	14	13	6
	kitchen	53	3	3	3	96	21	5		12
	patio	91	6			87				90	9
	courtyard	13				78	5			48	3
	side room	5				12		3
	storeroom	3				12
Winter	went out		2		3	3		4		3	3
	bathroom	12	7			14	6			9	6
	wing 1	9				8	6			6	3
	wing 2	6				3			3	6
	hall	95	16	9		73	18	9		55	18	16	10
	kitchen	49	6	4	3	104	24	6		18
	patio	46	5			88				90	9
	courtyard	25	3			9	6	3		54	3
	side room	9				16		3
	storeroom	3				8

that the length of stay of different families in each functional space is generally similar but slightly different. The two families had many short stays in the main functional space. The stay time of family A in the wing room is significantly longer than that of family B.

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Residents’ preference for space usage in different seasons

Comparing the length of stay of residents in each functional space in different seasons in Table 2 and Table 3, the number of short-term and momentary stays in the courtyard space in winter is significantly higher than that in summer: 18, 25, 91, 87, and 90 times in summer, and 12, 20, 46, 68, and 72 times in winter. The number of short stays in the patio space in summer is significantly higher than that in winter.

6.3. Spatial Connection Diagram

A dwelling is a multi-space complex organism formed according to the user’s living habits, family structure, economic conditions, regional culture, and other influencing factors, and contains profound cultural problems [46]. The seemingly similar home spatial arrangement hides the different lifestyles of the occupants, and its spatial organization is usually related to the family structure and living habits [43]. But with the development of society, the spatial organization mode of dwellings is also changing. This organizational mode reflects the design process of how the functional spaces in a dwelling are connected and ordered, aggregated, or separated, and also the synergistic process of its material form, immaterial form, and spatial configuration. Therefore, in order to grasp the complex spatial organization of the dwellings, we must focus on the physical form and spatial configuration of the dwellings, grasp the essential attributes of the spatial configuration, and illustrate the complex functional spaces and connection relationships of the dwellings.

It can be seen from the relationship between the dwelling spaces that the patio space, courtyard space, and hall space in Huizhou dwellings play an important role in the connection and organization of each space. According to the actual space usage of each inhabitant, the study optimizes the space connection as the connection diagram of the main stay space and the secondary stay space, which can more clearly express the actual usage of the main stay space and the connection with the secondary stay space (Figure 11).

6.4. Dwelling Space Connection Frequency Analysis

From the time–space series data on the residents, it can be found that different residents have different preferences for shuttle in each functional space during the day. This section counts the frequency of the observed person from the current moment’s location to the next moment’s location, and draws the connection frequency diagram of the stay space in a visual way, which can clearly reflect the movement of each inhabitant between the functional spaces (Figure 12).

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Characteristics of different families and residents moving between functional spaces

When the two residents in family A move daily, the frequency of arrival in the wing room is the highest. In residential dwelling B, the space with the highest spatial arrival frequency when resident BM70 moves is the hall space, and the spaces with the highest spatial arrival frequency when resident BW68 and BW12 move are the hall space and the kitchen space. An analysis of the connection frequency of the two households’ staying space shows that resident AM54 mainly centers on wing 1 and moves alternately in the hall, courtyard, and kitchen space; resident AW53 mainly centers on wing 1 and alternately moves in the courtyard and kitchen space. In family B, resident BM70 is mainly centered on the hall and moves alternately in the patio and kitchen space; resident BW68 is mainly centered on the kitchen and alternately moves in the hall, patio, and courtyard space; and resident BW12 is mainly centered on the hall, and in the patio and courtyard, the space moves alternately.

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Characteristics of residents moving between functional spaces in different seasons

It can be seen from Figure 10 that the frequency of the two households moving to the patio space in each space in summer is higher than that in winter, and the arrival frequency in the patio space is also higher than that in winter. In winter, the frequency of the two households moving to the courtyard space in each space is the same, higher than in summer, and the arrival frequency of courtyard space is also higher than that in summer.

7. Discussion

7.1. Preferences of Different Residents for Functional Spaces

From the trajectory density distribution and behavioral characteristics of residents in the two dwellings, it can be observed that the living space preferences of the two households are generally similar, though slight differences exist. The hall, courtyard, and kitchen spaces are the most frequently preferred living areas, while the wing rooms and patio spaces serve as secondary living areas. Additionally, different spatial organization patterns significantly influence the residents’ preferences for alternating between various functional spaces. Residents tend to favor functional spaces centered around or adjacent to key circulation areas.

Children are more inclined toward the linear spaces formed by the hall, patio, and courtyard. These open and well-ventilated spaces facilitate playful and running activities, effectively meeting the children’s needs for recreation. In contrast, male and female adults prefer continuous spaces composed of the hall, patio, courtyard, and kitchen. These areas are suitable for both leisure and social interactions, as well as daily household chores, reflecting the diversity and practicality of space preferences among adults. In any case, the continuous spatial sequence formed by the courtyard, patio, and hall—from the exterior to the interior—provides residents with greater possibilities for living behaviors [53].

In daily family life, most functional spaces are shared between the two households, with the hall space demonstrating its central role. This space serves not only as the primary area for communication and interaction among family members but also as a crucial shared living area for the two households. The hall’s openness and versatility allow it to accommodate various activities simultaneously, whether it be children playing, adults resting, or the entire family dining and entertaining together [27]. Furthermore, the patio and courtyard, as transitional spaces, provide an excellent environment for brief stays and activities of family members.

7.2. Residents’ Preferences for Space Usage Across Different Seasons

The patio space plays a crucial role in Huizhou traditional dwellings, and its unique functional mechanisms are reflected in both the architectural design and daily life [22]. As a semi-outdoor space within the building, the patio facilitates the “wind extraction” effect through thermal pressure-driven ventilation, creating an airflow that optimizes indoor ventilation and provides a well-circulated environment for the dwelling [54]. Field measurements and the UWB experimental analysis further reveal the seasonal differences in the role of the patio space. In summer, the patio’s shading and ventilation functions effectively reduce indoor temperatures, creating a cool and comfortable environment for the residents. This encourages frequent use of the patio for activities such as resting, chatting, or completing simple household tasks, resulting in higher utilization rates. However, in winter, the patio exhibits different characteristics. Due to its open structure, the patio’s limited ability to block solar radiation leads to lower internal temperatures, hindering heat retention for the inner facade and reducing overall comfort, which significantly decreases its usage by residents.

In contrast, the courtyard space shows a direct correlation between its utilization rate and seasonal temperature changes. In winter, the courtyard’s open environment allows for more direct sunlight, providing a warm and comfortable area for activities, which significantly increases its usage during this season. In summer, however, the courtyard’s high temperatures and intense sunlight exposure limit residents’ activities in this space, leading to lower utilization rates [55,56].

These seasonal patterns of space usage reflect the sensitive adaptability of Huizhou traditional dwellings to natural climatic conditions and highlight the wisdom of traditional architectural design in meeting residents’ daily living needs. The complementary functions of the patio and courtyard not only optimize space utilization efficiency but also provide residents with diverse activity areas throughout the changing seasons [57]. In-depth research into these characteristics can offer valuable insights on modern architectural design and inject new possibilities into the preservation and renovation of traditional buildings.

7.3. The Influence of Spatial Attributes on Residents’ Living Behaviors

The hall space, with the addition of modern furniture and appliances, has undergone a transformation that disrupts its original spatial structure. It has evolved into a multifunctional living area catering to entertainment, leisure, and other activities. The patio space, with its excellent lighting and ventilation conditions, has become a primary area for residents’ short stays and transitions. Although most residents frequently engage in activities in the patio, their stays are generally brief, indicating that the patio serves more as a functional space for passage, short breaks, or casual interactions rather than prolonged use. The kitchen, as an indispensable space in daily life, sees a high usage frequency among all residents except children, particularly during meal preparation and consumption periods. Field observations reveal that at noon in dwelling B, children choose to rest on the sofa in the hall, the male head of the household takes short breaks on the old sofa in the kitchen, and the female head of the household rests in the wing room. The differing choices of resting spaces among the three generations suggest that the wing room is not the primary functional space for rest. This demonstrates that the spatial attributes of Huizhou traditional dwellings do not directly influence the residents’ living behaviors; rather, the residents’ behavioral patterns are closely tied to the physical environments of the different spaces [24].

7.4. The Influence of Dwellings in Different Preservation States on Residents’ Living Behaviors

By comparing the trajectory density and behaviors of residents in the two dwellings, it can be observed that the usage frequency of the renovated wing rooms has significantly increased, even becoming the primary living space for residents in some cases. In traditional Huizhou dwellings, wing rooms, influenced by Confucian norms and architectural styles, were often characterized by dim lighting and poor ventilation, limiting their functionality primarily to nighttime rest and resulting in low daytime usage. However, renovations, such as increasing the window area, have significantly improved the lighting and ventilation conditions of the wing rooms, making these spaces brighter, more comfortable, and greatly enhancing their environmental quality.

The renovated wing rooms not only address the limitations of poor air circulation in traditional wing rooms but also provide residents with the possibility of engaging in more daily activities within this space. The introduction of natural light and improved airflow have transformed the wing rooms from single-function rest areas into multifunctional spaces, suitable for activities such as resting, reading, household chores, and even social interactions. This transformation reflects the optimization and innovation of traditional space utilization in response to modern living needs.

These changes fully demonstrate the positive role of renovations in traditional architecture [58]. By making moderate adjustments to traditional spaces, the historical character of the dwellings is preserved while enhancing their functionality and comfort, thereby better meeting the needs of modern residents [59]. This practice provides valuable insights on the preservation and adaptive reuse of traditional dwellings, as well as offering lessons on the adaptive transformation of other traditional buildings in contemporary life.

7.5. Research Prospects

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Limitations of samples

This study employs UWB indoor positioning technology to examine differences in residents’ daily productive and domestic behaviors, as well as their spatial preferences, between two Huizhou traditional dwellings with distinct preservation statuses during summer and winter.

Huizhou vernacular architecture, shaped by stringent construction norms during the Ming and Qing dynasties, exhibits a high homogeneity and cultural consistency. The two selected dwellings exemplify the region’s prevalent paradigms in spatial layout, family structure, and historical context.

Given the requirement for the synchronous recording of residents’ full-day trajectories, behaviors, and space utilization patterns, continuous 72-h high-density monitoring was implemented. This duration proved sufficient to capture representative behavioral modes while respecting participants’ tolerance for prolonged privacy exposure. Furthermore, extreme climatic conditions—characterized by high humidity and heat in summer versus low temperatures and limited heating in winter—serve as critical behavioral drivers. These conditions impose significant constraints on daily activities (e.g., courtyard usage, adaptive reuse of multifunctional spaces), rendering behavioral adaptations more pronounced and measurable.

Future work will expand the sample size and incorporate spring/autumn seasons to investigate the annual cyclical patterns in residents’ trajectory distributions, spatial utilization, and behavioral adaptations within traditional dwellings.

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Limitations in dwelling renovation

Over the past two decades, Chinese authorities have implemented specific measures for the conservation of cultural heritage sites, rendering many protected buildings legally ineligible for structural modifications. The window renovations discussed in this study predate these regulations. While these alterations demonstrably improved residents’ living conditions, they now conflict with current preservation policies that prohibit such interventions.

Consequently, all future renovation measures must strictly adhere to the “Principle of Minimal Intervention” outlined in the China Principles for the Conservation of Heritage Sites. This entails prioritizing functional adaptability upgrades, ensuring all the structural and material modifications remain reversible, and maintaining the authenticity of the original construction techniques. This approach balances contemporary livability needs with irreversible cultural value preservation.

8. Conclusions

This study employs UWB indoor positioning technology to investigate the living behaviors and spatial usage preferences of residents in typical Huizhou traditional dwellings, exploring the correlation between residents’ behaviors and dwelling spaces. By analyzing the behaviors of residents in two Huizhou traditional dwellings with different preservation states during summer and winter, the following key conclusions were drawn: the hall, courtyard, and kitchen are the most frequently used living spaces, followed by the wing rooms and patio. Residents’ preferences for functional spaces tend to center around key circulation areas, with children favoring open linear spaces for activities, while adults prefer multifunctional continuous spaces. The hall, as a core space, serves multiple purposes, such as family interaction, leisure, and entertainment, while the patio and courtyard function as transitional spaces for short stays and activities. In summer, the patio sees high usage due to its shading and ventilation, but its usage declines in winter due to lower temperatures. Conversely, the courtyard is more frequently used in winter due to direct sunlight, while its usage decreases in summer due to high temperatures. These seasonal variations reflect the climate-adaptive design of Huizhou traditional dwellings. The introduction of modern furniture and appliances has transformed the hall into a multifunctional living space, while the patio, as a short-stay area, is frequently used but for brief periods. The kitchen, as an essential daily living space, sees a high usage frequency. Residents’ behavioral patterns are closely tied to the physical environments of the spaces rather than being solely determined by the spatial attributes. Renovated wing rooms, with improved lighting and ventilation, have seen significantly increased usage, transitioning from single-function rest areas to multifunctional spaces. Such renovations not only enhance spatial comfort but also meet the needs of modern residents, offering valuable insights for the preservation and renewal of traditional dwellings.

The study demonstrates that the spatial design of Huizhou traditional dwellings is closely linked to residents’ living behaviors, with seasonal climate and spatial renovations significantly influencing these behaviors. Balancing the preservation of traditional features with moderate renovations to improve comfort and functionality is a crucial direction for the future protection and renewal of traditional dwellings. For traditional dwellings that are eligible for renovation, policy-level improvements should include: establishing seasonal maintenance standards (increasing the funding allocation for courtyard maintenance in summer, with emphasis on drainage and shading improvements; adding heating facilities in main halls during winter); from a design perspective, new residential designs should thoroughly address courtyard drainage and shading issues (e.g., incorporating operable/closeable courtyard designs); and for open courtyards, consider installing glass partitions between the main halls and courtyards to allow flexible enclosure adjustments. This research provides valuable references for modern architectural design and offers lessons on the adaptive transformation of traditional buildings in contemporary life.