A Comparative Cradle-to-Gate Life Cycle Assessment of Mid-Rise Office Building Construction Alternatives: Laminated Timber or Reinforced Concrete
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methodological Framework
Quantitative (numerically defined within study) | Qualitative (discussed based on case study & literature reviews) |
---|---|
|
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Study Limitations
3. Results
3.1. Functional Units and Bill of Materials
Concrete design | Timber design | Functional unit | Notes & assumptions |
---|---|---|---|
Gypsum Wall Board | Gypsum Wall Board | 0.09 m2 (1 ft2) | 13 mm (½”) thick, includes tape, mud, screws @ 406 mm (16”) O/C studs, corner bead is not included |
Steel Stud Framing | – | 0.09 m2 (1 ft2) | 33 mm galvanized studs @ 610 mm (24”) O/C, screws included |
– | Wood Stud Framing | 0.09 m2 (1 ft2) | 38 × 89 mm (2” 4” nominal), untreated, kiln-dried @ 406 mm (16”) O/C, galvanized steel nails included |
– | BioPreserve Soyguard Wood Sealer | 9.29 m2 (100 ft2) | Applied to exterior exposed wood only, repeated every 2 years |
Anonymous R-13 Insulation | Anonymous R-13 Insulation | 0.09 m2 (1 ft2) | 89 mm (3−½) thick |
Spray Foam Insulation | – | 1 m2 | 3 cm thick, closed cell polyurethane with H2O/CO2 blowing agent |
Slab-on-Grade * | Slab-on-Grade * | 0.09 m2 (1 ft2) | 102 mm (4”) thick, f’c = 21 MPa, 15% & 20% fly ash cement mixes considered, assumed 0.908 kg/m2 (1.67 lbs/yd2) of reinforcing steel |
Below-Grade Foundation Walls & Spread Footings * | Below-Grade Foundation Walls & Spread Footings * | 0.09 m2 (1 ft2) | 203 mm (8”) thick, f’c = 21 MPa, 15% & 20% fly ash cement mixes considered, assumed 23.9 kg/m2 (44 lbs/yd2) of reinforcing steel |
Above-Grade Walls, Beams, Slabs, Drop Panels & Slab Bands * | – | 0.0283 m3 (1 ft3) | f’c = 28 MPa, 15% & 20% fly ash cement mixes considered, average of 86.2 kg/m3 (145 lbs/yd3) of reinforcing steel assumed |
Columns & Shear Cores/Walls * | Elevator & Stair Concrete Shear Cores/Walls * | 0.0283 m3 (1 ft3) | f’c = 34 MPa, 15% & 20% fly ash cement mixes considered, average of 172.4 kg/m3 (290 lbs/yd3) of reinforcing steel assumed |
– | Cross-Laminated Timber Walls & Floors | 1 m3 | 38 × 140 mm (2” × 6” nominal) untreated, kiln-dried, MPB-killed lodgepole pine lumber, bonding adhesives are included |
– | Glulam Beams & Columns | 1 m3 | Standard grades and dimensions, untreated, kiln-dried, MPB-killed lodgepole pine lumber, bonding adhesives are included |
Curtain Wall | Curtain Wall | 1 m2 | Viewable & spandrel glazing considered, viewable units assumed double-glazed, low-e, argon gas filled |
– | Generic Cedar Siding | 0.09 m2 (1 ft2) | Bevelled, 13 mm (½ - can be changed to 0.5 if required”) thick, 150 mm (6”) wide, galvanized nails @ 41 cm (16”) O/C, 1 coat primer & 2 coats stain (stain reapplied every 10 years) |
Material group | Unit of measurement | Concrete design | Timber design |
---|---|---|---|
Foundation | |||
Footings | (m3 of concrete) | 1,408 | 1,408 |
Slab-on-grade | (m3 of concrete) | 416 | 416 |
Foundation walls | (m3 of concrete) | 834 | 834 |
Below-grade columns | (m3 of concrete) | 151 | 151 |
P2, P1 & ground floor slabs | (m3 of concrete) | 3,253 | 3,253 |
Superstructure | |||
Primary shear walls & cores | (m3 of concrete) | 1,293 | 1,293 |
Vertical load-bearing walls | (m3 of concrete or CLT) | 181 | 128 |
Above-grade floors & roof | (m3 of concrete or CLT) | 3,628 | 2,950 |
Above-grade columns | (m3 of concrete or glulam) | 268 | 122 |
Beams & roof parapet | (m3 of concrete or glulam) | 166 | 947 |
Wood sealer | (m2) | – | 1,586 |
Building Enclosure | |||
Curtain wall | (m2) | 2,415 | 2,415 |
Cedar siding | (m2 of 13 mm thickness) | – | 13,374 |
ccSPF insulation | (m3) | 2,134 | – |
Building Enclosure | |||
R-13 insulation | (m3) | 258 | 115 |
Steel stud framing | (m2 @ 406 mm O/C) | 1,617 | – |
Wood stud framing | (m2 @ 406 mm O/C) | – | 1,617 |
Gypsum wall board | (m2 of 13 mm thickness) | 1,929 | 1,929 |
3.2. Life Cycle Impact Analysis: Building Design Comparison
3.3. Embodied Energy
3.4. Uncertainty Analysis
3.5. Sensitivity Analysis
3.5.1. Lower Impact Concrete Mix: A 5% Increase in Fly Ash Content
3.5.2. Laminated Timber Material Quantities: An Increase of 10%
4. Discussion
4.1. LCA of Wood Products
4.1.1. Adhesives
4.1.2. Carbon Accounting
4.2. EE and GWP: Analysis and Literature Comparison
Study authors | Embodied energy (GJ/m2) | GWP (kg CO2 eq./m2) |
Reinforced concrete frame | ||
Cole, R.J. [23] | 4.93 | – |
Hood, I.W. [24] | 4.26 | – |
Cole, R.J.; Kernan, P.C. [25] | 4.79 | – |
Kernan, P.C. [26] | 4.03 | – |
CWC [27] | 1.38 | 287 |
Guggemos, A.A.; Horvath, A. [28] | 8.30 | 550 |
Krogmann et al. [29,30] | 17.9 | 844 |
Robertson et al.—This Study | 4.60 F&P/3.51 P | 420 |
Timber frame | ||
Marcea, R.L.; Lau, K.K. [31] | 0.74 | 40.7 |
Cole, R.J.; Kernan, P.C. [25] | 4.54 | – |
CWC [27] | 0.81 | 159 |
Gustavsson et al. [32] | 3.51 | 89.0 * |
Robertson et al.—This Study | 8.17 F&P/3.49 P | 126 * |
4.3. Inclusion of On-Site Construction/Erection Stage
- The transportation of the building crew to and from the construction site for the duration of their construction task;
- The transportation of materials from a distribution centre to the construction site;
- The transportation of equipment specific to the construction task to and from a central depot to the building site;
- The use of on-site equipment specific to the construction task;
- Supporting processes such as form-work and temporary heating.
4.4. End-of-Life: Demolition and Disposal
5. Conclusions
Future Research
Building material | LCI data source |
---|---|
Gypsum wall board | [12] |
Steel stud framing | [12] |
Wood stud framing | [12] |
BioPreserve soyguard wood sealer | [12] |
Anonymous R-13 insulation | [12] |
Closed cell spray polyurethane foam insulation (ccSPF) | [45,46] |
Slab-on-grade | [12] |
Below-grade foundation walls & spread footings | [12] |
Above-grade concrete walls, beams, slabs, drop panels & slab bands | [12] |
Concrete columns | [12] |
Cross-laminated timber walls & floors | [10,47,48,49] |
Glulam beams & columns | [47,49,50] |
Generic cedar siding | [12] |
Curtain wall-vision glass & spandrel | [51] |
Acknowledgments
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Robertson, A.B.; Lam, F.C.F.; Cole, R.J. A Comparative Cradle-to-Gate Life Cycle Assessment of Mid-Rise Office Building Construction Alternatives: Laminated Timber or Reinforced Concrete. Buildings 2012, 2, 245-270. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings2030245
Robertson AB, Lam FCF, Cole RJ. A Comparative Cradle-to-Gate Life Cycle Assessment of Mid-Rise Office Building Construction Alternatives: Laminated Timber or Reinforced Concrete. Buildings. 2012; 2(3):245-270. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings2030245
Chicago/Turabian StyleRobertson, Adam B., Frank C. F. Lam, and Raymond J. Cole. 2012. "A Comparative Cradle-to-Gate Life Cycle Assessment of Mid-Rise Office Building Construction Alternatives: Laminated Timber or Reinforced Concrete" Buildings 2, no. 3: 245-270. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings2030245