Digital Overload among College Students: Implications for Mental Health App Use
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Participants
2.2. Procedure
2.3. Data Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Screen Time and Notifications Data
3.2. Themes
3.2.1. Attitudes and Behaviors toward General Phone Use
“Checking social media can be a drag on mental health when you see that other people have like such a great life compared to you because of selective sharing on social media”.(Participant 7)
3.2.2. Impact of Phone Organization on Phone Use
“I try and keep my calendar, my school stuff closer towards the bottom to influence me to get back to work”.(P4)
“On my front screen I have no social media apps. I used to have that before and then I was like, this is just a waste of time. If I have to go, because I know that if I have to actually go and slide all the way through everything to find it, then I’m not going to use it as often”.(P12)
“[I] swipe down and then type into the bar at the top because I also read somewhere that that’s apparently, like you’re more intentional, if you have to physically type it out”.(P1)
3.2.3. Using Apps for Mental Health Purposes
3.2.4. Barriers to Regular Use of Mental Apps
“I just got into the routine of my boyfriend sleeping with me and like I wasn’t going to play an app with him there, there’s just no point”.(P2)
“I do use Calm, not on a daily basis or something, but more if I’m like having a specific incident with anxiety, I will use it to calm me down”.(P7)
3.2.5. Reactions and Behavioral Responses to Notifications
“When I got emails in my notifications, it could make it so that when I was trying to enjoy myself, like it just was like obstructing”.(P7)
“If a notification interrupts me doing something else, I don’t look at it... I’m irritated, because I’m like focused on a thing and it’s in the way now”.(P10)
“I think that not having them [notifications] is the cause of me checking it more”.(P3)
“I feel like I check it often, if not more, because I’m like, I wonder if someone sent me something”.(P6)
3.2.6. Suggestions for Improving Integration and Engagement of Mental Health Apps
“Probably something that does multiple things. Like if it were like a mental health app, it would I don’t know, have a weather component or something […] little things like that I think are like a lot easier to then incorporate into your schedule”.(P10)
“Having a direct purpose for the application would make it easy to justify taking away time from something else”.(P12)
“Something that does motivate me to use it, is the fact that there’s like basically a meditation for any kind of mood that I’m in. And for whatever length I need… I know that they’re going to keep adding things which makes it like worth continuing to engage with it”.(P1)
“I think one thing that mental health apps lack... is some sort of like, that idea of interacting with other people”.(P4)
4. Discussion
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Ahuvia, Isaac L., Jenna Y. Sung, Mallory L. Dobias, Brady D. Nelson, Lauren L. Richmond, Bonita London, and Jessica L. Schleider. 2021. College Student Interest in Teletherapy and Self-Guided Mental Health Supports During the COVID-19 Pandemic. PsyArXiv Preprints. Available online: https://psyarxiv.com/8unfx/ (accessed on 21 May 2021).
- American College Health Association. 2019. National College Health Assessment: Spring 2019 Reference Group Data Report. American College Health Association. Available online: https://www.acha.org/NCHA/ACHA-NCHA_Data/Publications_and_Reports/NCHA/Data/Reports_ACHA-NCHAIIc.aspx (accessed on 21 May 2021).
- Andrews, Sally, David A. Ellis, Heather Shaw, and Lukasz Piwek. 2015. Beyond Self-Report: Tools to Compare Estimated and Real-World Smartphone Use. PLoS ONE 10: 0139004. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Ataş, Amine Hatun, and Berkan Çelik. 2019. Smartphone Use of University Students: Patterns, Purposes, and Situations. Malaysian Online Journal of Educational Technology 7: 54–70. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bakker, David, Nikolaos Kazantzis, Debra Rickwood, and Nikki Rickard. 2016. Mental health smartphone apps: Review and evidence-based recommendations for future developments. JMIR Mental Health 3: 7:1–7:31. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Baumel, Amit, Frederick Muench, Stav Edan, and John M. Kane. 2019. Objective User Engagement with Mental Health Apps: Systematic Search and Panel-Based Usage Analysis. Journal of Medical Internet Research 21: 14567:1–14567:15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Bawden, David, and Lyn Robinson. 2009. The Dark Side of Information: Overload, Anxiety and Other Paradoxes and Pathologies. Journal of Information Science 35: 180–91. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Braun, Virginia, and Victoria Clarke. 2006. Using Thematic Analysis in Psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology 3: 77–101. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Caine, Kelly. 2016. Local Standards for Sample Size at CHI. Paper presented at CHI: Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, San Jose, CA, USA, April 28–May 3; pp. 981–92. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Center for Collegiate Mental Health. 2021. 2020 Annual Report. CCMH Annual Reports. Available online: https://ccmh.psu.edu/assets/docs/2020%20CCMH%20Annual%20Report.pdf (accessed on 21 May 2021).
- Chambers, David A. 2020. Sharpening our Focus on Designing for Dissemination: Lessons from the SPRINT Program and Potential Next Steps for the Field. Translational Behavioral Medicine 10: 1416–18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Cohen, Katherine A., Andrea K. Graham, and Emily G. Lattie. 2020. Aligning Students and Counseling Centers on Student Mental Health Needs and Treatment Resources. Journal of American College Health 2020: 1–19. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Cohen, Katherine A., Colleen Stiles-Shields, Nathan Winquist, and Emily G. Lattie. 2021. Traditional and Nontraditional Mental Healthcare Services: Usage and Preferences Among Adolescents and Younger Adults. The Journal of Behavioral Health Services & Research 2021: 1–17. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- David, Meredith E., James A. Roberts, and Brett Christenson. 2018. Too Much of a Good Thing: Investigating the Association between Actual Smartphone Use and Individual Well-Being. International Journal of Human–Computer Interaction 34: 265–75. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fitzsimmons-Craft, Ellen E., C. Barr Taylor, Michelle G. Newman, Nur Hani Zainal, Elsa Rojas-Ashe, Sarah Ketchen Lipson, Marie-Laure Firebaugh, Peter Ceglarek, Naira Topooco, Nicholas C. Jacobson, and et al. 2021. Harnessing Mobile Technology to Reduce Mental Health Disorders in College Populations: A Randomized Controlled Trial Study Protocol. Contemporary Clinical Trials 103: 106320:1–106320:10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Guest, Greg, Arwen Bunce, and Laura Johnson. 2006. How Many Interviews Are Enough?: An Experiment with Data Saturation and Variability. Field Methods 18: 59–82. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Guest, Greg, Emily Namey, and Mario Chen. 2020. A Simple Method to Assess and Report Thematic Saturation in Qualitative Research. PLoS ONE 15: 0232076. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hannah, David R., and Brenda A. Lautsch. 2011. Counting in Qualitative Research: Why to Conduct It, When to Avoid It, and When to Closet It. Journal of Management Inquiry 20: 14–22. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Johnson, Kaprea F., and Michael T. Kalkbrenner. 2017. The Utilization of Technological Innovations to Support College Student Mental Health: Mobile Health Communication. Journal of Technology in Human Services 35: 314–39. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kern, Adam, Victor Hong, Joyce Song, Sarah Ketchen Lipson, and Daniel Eisenberg. 2018. Mental Health Apps in a College Setting: Openness, Usage, and Attitudes. MHealth 2018: 4. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- LaRose, Robert, Regina Connolly, Hyegyu Lee, Kang Li, and Kayla D. Hales. 2014. Connection Overload? A Cross Cultural Study of the Consequences of Social Media Connection. Information Systems Management 31: 59–73. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lattie, Emily G., Sarah Ketchen Lipson, and Daniel Eisenberg. 2019. Technology and College Student Mental Health: Challenges and Opportunities. Frontiers in Psychiatry 10: 246:1–246:5. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Lehman, Amanda, and Sophie Jo Miller. 2020. A Theoretical Conversation about Responses to Information Overload. Information 11: 379. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lipson, Sarah Ketchen, Emily G. Lattie, and Daniel Eisenberg. 2019. Increased Rates of Mental Health Service Utilization by U.S. College Students: 10-Year Population-Level Trends (2007–2017). Psychiatric Services 70: 60–63. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Melcher, Jennifer, Erica Camacho, Sarah Lagan, and John Torous. 2020. College Student Engagement with Mental Health Apps: Analysis of Barriers to Sustained Use. Journal of American College Health 2020: 1–7. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Misra, Shalini, and Daniel Stokols. 2012. Psychological and Health Outcomes of Perceived Information Overload. Environment and Behavior 44: 737–59. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Montagni, Ilaria, Christophe Tzourio, Thierry Cousin, Joseph Amadomon Sagara, Jennifer Bada-Alonzi, and Aine Horgan. 2020. Mental Health-Related Digital Use by University Students: A Systematic Review. Telemedicine and e-Health 26: 131–46. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Muller, Michael J., and Sarah Kuhn. 1993. Participatory Design. Communications of the ACM 36: 24–28. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Neary, Martha, and Stephen M. Schueller. 2018. State of the Field of Mental Health Apps. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice 25: 531–37. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Orlowski, Simone Kate, Sharon Lawn, Anthony Venning, Megan Winsall, Gabrielle M. Jones, Kaisha Wyld, Raechel A. Damarell, Gaston Antezana, Geoffrey Schrader, David Smith, and et al. 2015. Participatory Research as One Piece of the Puzzle: A Systematic Review of Consumer Involvement in Design of Technology-Based Youth Mental Health and Well-Being Interventions. JMIR Human Factors 2: 12:1–12:21. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Oswalt, Sara B., Alyssa M. Lederer, Kimberly Chestnut-Steich, Carol Day, Ashlee Halbritter, and Dugeidy Ortiz. 2020. Trends in College Students’ Mental Health Diagnoses and Utilization of Services, 2009–2015. Journal of American College Health 68: 41–51. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Palinkas, Lawrence A., Sarah M. Horwitz, Carla A. Green, Jennifer P. Wisdom, Naihua Duan, and Kimberly Hoagwood. 2015. Purposeful Sampling for Qualitative Data Collection and Analysis in Mixed Method Implementation Research. Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research 42: 533–44. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Panova, Tayana, and Alejandro Lleras. 2016. Avoidance or Boredom: Negative Mental Health Outcomes Associated with Use of Information and Communication Technologies Depend on Users’ Motivations. Computers in Human Behavior 58: 249–58. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Patton, Michael Quinn. 2002. Qualitative Research and Evaluation Methods, 3rd ed. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. [Google Scholar]
- Pew Research Center. 2021. Mobile Fact Sheet. Pew Research Center. Available online: https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/fact-sheet/mobile/ (accessed on 21 May 2021).
- Piper Sandler Companies. 2020. Taking Stock with Teens: Fall 2020 Survey. Piper Sandler. Available online: https://www.pipersandler.com/3col.aspx?id=6039 (accessed on 21 May 2021).
- Reinecke, Leonard, Stefan Aufenanger, Manfred E. Beutel, Michael Dreier, Oliver Quiring, Birgit Stark, Klaus Wölfling, and Kai W. Müller. 2017. Digital Stress over the Life Span: The Effects of Communication Load and Internet Multitasking on Perceived Stress and Psychological Health Impairments in a German Probability Sample. Media Psychology 20: 90–115. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Renjith, R. 2017. The Effect of Information Overload in Digital Media News Content. Communication and Media Studies 6: 73–85. [Google Scholar]
- Roberts, James. A., Luc Honore Petnji Yaya, and Chris Manolis. 2014. The Invisible Addiction: Cell-Phone Activities and Addiction among Male and Female College Students. Journal of Behavioral Addictions 3: 254–65. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Saunders, Benjamin, Julius Sim, Tom Kingstone, Shula Baker, Jackie Waterfield, Bernadette Bartlam, Heather Burroughs, and Clare Jinks. 2018. Saturation in Qualitative Research: Exploring its Conceptualization and Operationalization. Quality & Quantity 52: 1893–907. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schueller, Stephen M., Martha Neary, Kristen O’Loughlin, and Elizabeth C. Adkins. 2018. Discovery of and Interest in Health Apps Among Those with Mental Health Needs: Survey and Focus Group Study. Journal of Medical Internet Research 20: 10141:1–10141:10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sobolev, Michael, Rachel Vitale, Hongyi Wen, James Kizer, Robert Leeman, J. P. Pollak, Amit Baumel, Nehal P. Vadhan, Deborah Estrin, and Frederick Muench. 2021. The Digital Marshmallow Test (DMT) Diagnostic and Monitoring Mobile Health App for Impulsive Behavior: Development and Validation Study. JMIR mHealth and uHealth 9: 25018:1–25018:21. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Steele, Ric G., Jeffrey A. Hall, and Jennifer L. Christofferson. 2020. Conceptualizing Digital Stress in Adolescents and Young Adults: Toward the Development of an Empirically Based Model. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review 23: 15–26. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Vaghefi, Isaac, and Bengisu Tulu. 2019. The Continued Use of Mobile Health Apps: Insights from a Longitudinal Study. JMIR mHealth and uHealth 7: 12983:1–12983:1. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
Participant ID | Gender | Race and Ethnicity | Age | University | Year in School |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
P1 | Female | Asian or Asian American, White, Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander | 20 | Private Four-Year | Year 3 |
P2 | Female | American Indian or Alaskan Native, Hispanic or Latino | 20 | Public Four-Year | Year 3 |
P3 | Female | Asian or Asian American | 20 | Public Four-Year | Year 3 |
P4 | Male | White | 18 | Private Four-Year | Year 1 |
P5 | Female | Asian or Asian American | 20 | Private Four-Year | Year 3 |
P6 | Male | White | 19 | Public Four-Year | Year 3 |
P7 | Male | White | 19 | Private Four-Year | Year 2 |
P8 | Male | Asian or Asian American, White | 19 | Private Four-Year | Year 2 |
P9 | Female | Black or African American | 18 | Private Four-Year | Year 1 |
P10 | Female | Black or African American | 21 | Private Four-Year | Year 4 |
P11 | Male | Black or African American | 20 | Private Four-Year | Year 2 |
P12 | Female | Black or African American | 20 | Private Four-Year | Year 3 |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Smith, A.C.; Fowler, L.A.; Graham, A.K.; Jaworski, B.K.; Firebaugh, M.-L.; Monterubio, G.E.; Vázquez, M.M.; DePietro, B.; Sadeh-Sharvit, S.; Balantekin, K.N.; et al. Digital Overload among College Students: Implications for Mental Health App Use. Soc. Sci. 2021, 10, 279. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci10080279
Smith AC, Fowler LA, Graham AK, Jaworski BK, Firebaugh M-L, Monterubio GE, Vázquez MM, DePietro B, Sadeh-Sharvit S, Balantekin KN, et al. Digital Overload among College Students: Implications for Mental Health App Use. Social Sciences. 2021; 10(8):279. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci10080279
Chicago/Turabian StyleSmith, Arielle C., Lauren A. Fowler, Andrea K. Graham, Beth K. Jaworski, Marie-Laure Firebaugh, Grace E. Monterubio, Melissa M. Vázquez, Bianca DePietro, Shiri Sadeh-Sharvit, Katherine N. Balantekin, and et al. 2021. "Digital Overload among College Students: Implications for Mental Health App Use" Social Sciences 10, no. 8: 279. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci10080279
APA StyleSmith, A. C., Fowler, L. A., Graham, A. K., Jaworski, B. K., Firebaugh, M. -L., Monterubio, G. E., Vázquez, M. M., DePietro, B., Sadeh-Sharvit, S., Balantekin, K. N., Topooco, N., Wilfley, D. E., Taylor, C. B., & Fitzsimmons-Craft, E. E. (2021). Digital Overload among College Students: Implications for Mental Health App Use. Social Sciences, 10(8), 279. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci10080279