Practices in Integrating Workplace Learning into Upper Secondary Education

Abstract

In recent years, Estonian employers, upper secondary schools, and other stakeholders have devised various new collaborative measures to effectively integrate workplace learning (WPL) and school education. These efforts are aimed at enhancing the key competences of students. However, the educational purpose and effectiveness of the various initiatives are unknown. The main aim of this research is to explore what kinds of practises are applied in Estonian upper secondary schools to integrate formal education and WPL, and the experiences and requirements of schools and employers in this area. The empirical study is based on individual and focus group interviews conducted with upper secondary school teachers, head teachers, and employers. A phenomenological approach and inductive thematic analysis were used to examine current practises. The results of the study show that workplace learning is integrated into school learning mainly for the development of key competences and career competencies. An important part of the learning process is reflecting on experiences implemented via institutional cooperation. In core or foundation subjects, especially STEM subjects, the topics of work life or recognition of work experience are rarely encountered in school.

1. Introduction

The general aim of Estonian education is to equip people with the knowledge, skills and attitudes to prepare them to fulfil their potential in their personal, occupational, and social life, and to contribute to promoting the quality of life in Estonia, as well as global sustainable development (Ministry of Education and Research 2021). The digital and green transition has brought rapid changes to the labour market and social life. In order to adapt and cope with the changes in the labour market, society and life, it is crucial to re-design educational aims and, besides subject-based knowledge, to also prioritise the development of key competences for lifelong learning and basic skills in education (European Commission 2020; Looney et al. 2022; Ministry of Education and Research 2021; OECD 2018; Sutrop et al. 2019).

The development of key competences in formal education began to receive increased attention after the European Parliament and the Council of the European Union issued recommendations on key competences for lifelong learning in 2006. The recommendations, which have been a key reference document for the development of competence-oriented education, training and learning, was updated in 2018 (Council Recommendation on Key Competences for Lifelong Learning 2018). Competence refers to the integrated set of capabilities which are conditional for task performance and problem solving, and for being able to function effectively in a certain profession, organisation, job, role, and situation. In other words, competence is also contextual and expresses the ability to use knowledge, skills, and attitudes in a certain setting (Mulder et al. 2009).

The development of key competences is integrated as a compulsory component into the Estonian curricula for basic schools, upper secondary schools, and vocational schools. In Estonian general education, the term key competences has been replaced by the term general competencies, although the meaning overlaps.

Among the key competences for lifelong learning, entrepreneurship competence has received relatively high attention in Estonian education. Since 2013, entrepreneurship education is mandatory and part of all vocational education curricula. In general education, it is integrated into the curriculum as either a general competence, which should be taught and developed in an integrated manner in subjects and subject areas, or through various elective courses (e.g., business and economics courses) and other educational activities (e.g., student companies, competitions, programmes initiated by other stakeholders) organised to foster entrepreneurship education. The entrepreneurship and career education programme Edu & Tegu,1 which covered all levels of education and aimed to promote entrepreneurship and career education and an entrepreneurial attitude at all levels was recently implemented in Estonia (2016–2023). The experiences of Estonian entrepreneurship teachers in vocational education have revealed that practical learning, which includes collaborating with external organisations, companies, and entrepreneurs, is more effective and highly motivating for students (Loogma et al. 2021).

To develop key competences, experiencing real-life settings and opportunities to be in an unfamiliar environment is important. According to Mulder et al. (2009), the new approach proposed a comprehensive analysis of the context of use to precede a situated learning task in which balanced attention would be paid to the knowledge, skill, and attitude components of the respective competence.

Recent national studies (Erss et al. 2024; Peterson et al. 2024) show that work experience (opportunity to act and use skills and knowledge in an authentic work setting) enables students to develop key competences and competencies related to their agency. The students mainly develop personal, social, and learning competencies. These skills are highly valued by Estonian employers (Leemet and Ungro 2022). There is also a reform in Estonian vocational education planned over the next years, with one of the aims being to foster the integration of developing key competences in students into the curricula to better meet the expectations of employers (Vapper 2023).

The development of key competences is a compulsory part of the national curriculum in the Estonian education system at different education levels. The practice of how to implement this in the learning context, and which learning activities and practices to use, is up to the schools to decide. It is important to create suitable conditions in schools for developing the key competences, including support for their integration in learning. However, the most suitable learning forms, and how teachers’ should change their practice to create such learning conditions are still unclear (Tiana et al. 2011). Despite identifying the widespread methodologies and pedagogies over the recent years, the main challenge still lies in the implementation, as the learning environment has seen minimal changes. To foster self-regulated learning, a new approach is needed, requiring resources and a rethinking of stakeholder interactions, with a focus on alternative learning environments (Lifelong Learning Platform 2023).

Based on previous studies, it is recommended that schools cooperate with external partners, including enterprises, to offer students real-life settings to foster the development of key competences. It is believed that the workplace provides a rich learning environment, making it possible to prepare students to learn about working life, as well as prepare them for future career choices, including post-school pathways (educational choices) (Billett and Ovens 2007; Eraut 2004). Experiences in Slovakia have also shown that the best practises for developing key competences include institutional cooperation with enterprises in the field. There is strong involvement from the banking industry to develop the financial literacy of students. And to develop digital competence, new initiatives in cooperation with ICT enterprises have been established (Looney et al. 2022). In the German and Finnish education systems, general education studies also introduce students to work life with special observation programmes, which enable the students to shadow different people to become more aware of their professions and daily work.

The Estonian Education Strategy 2021–2035 (Ministry of Education and Research 2021) states that the current subject-centred learning in general education does not sufficiently support the development of key competences and future skills. The personalisation of learning in practice is not well established and teaching at schools is currently not sufficiently learner-centred. Learner-centred education is an approach that focuses on the needs, interests, and active participation of students, where they are seen as active agents in their own learning process (Rogers 1969). The approach encourages self-directed learning, critical thinking, and the development of problem-solving skills. Therefore, it is important to establish new learning methods in formal education to sufficiently recognise the knowledge and skills acquired in various environments (e.g., workplaces). This is set as a target to enable more students to create connections with work life (e.g., providing more practical vocational and technology-related skills starting from basic school, and understand the patterns of suitable behaviour in workplaces) and opportunities to be involved in civic participation. The development and assessment of key competences and practical skills are seen as a natural part of learning at different educational levels. It is considered important to integrate education and training with work life, and to develop co-creation models that ensure the active and meaningful involvement of social partners. Despite these strategic aims, in practice the cooperation between enterprises and schools is not formal and institutionalised in Estonian general education, like it is in some other countries (e.g., Finland, Germany). In Germany, the Berufsorientierungspraktikum (career orientation internship) is a mandatory, short-term placement typically undertaken during the 9th or 10th grade of secondary school. The primary aim of this internship is to expose students to real-world work environments, allowing them to observe various professional roles and gain hands-on experience. These internships aim to help students develop essential practical skills, familiarise themselves with labour market expectations, and make informed decisions about future career paths. Since 2004, British secondary education included a statutory requirement for Key Stage 4 students (aged 14–16) to undertake work-related learning. However, this requirement was removed in 2012 following the Wolf Review, which emphasised the need to provide work experience closer to students’ entry into the labour market. Current policies encourage high-quality work experience, but research indicates a decrease in participation, with notable regional disparities and reduced engagement in activities such as job shadowing and workplace visits (Buzzeo and Cifci 2017). In the Estonian education system, policies (Ministry of Education and Research 2021) recognise the importance of incorporating external learning environments, such as authentic work settings, into the learning process. However, participation is voluntary, and its implementation varies across schools. According to the PISA 2022 results (Tire et al. 2023), 29% of respondents participated in job-shadowing and 31% in internships; however, given that internships are not compulsory in the curriculum, students may interpret the term ‘internship’ differently. There are no nationwide statistics available for upper secondary participation, but given its focus on academic learning, it is likely that the participation rate is not high.

Recent studies (Tire et al. 2023; Erss et al. 2024) show that more and more basic and upper secondary school students in Estonia have already acquired practical work experience, either working alongside their studies or during the school holidays. Although it is known that the students have work experience, the meaning of these in the learning context (including the development of key competences) and the practises implemented by the schools to support WPL are unknown. It is unclear how the learning in WPL practises takes place, how it is supported and guided, and which pedagogies are used in the process. There is a need to understand the significance of these practises at greater depth. We believe that applying the Integrative Pedagogical Model is beneficial for describing and understanding the development of students’ key competences while learning in two parallel environments: the school and the workplace.

The main aim of this research is to explore what kinds of practises are applied in Estonian upper secondary schools for integrating formal education and WPL.

The research questions are as follows:

• What are the practises for integrating school-based and workplace learning in Estonian upper secondary schools?
• What are the experiences and needs of employers and schools in this integration?

2. Theoretical Framework

The theoretical framework of the current article is based on the definition of the key competences for lifelong learning (Council Recommendation on Key Competences for Lifelong Learning 2018) and the Integrative Pedagogy Model (Tynjälä 2008; Tynjälä et al. 2022).

The key competences for lifelong learning are integrated into the national curriculum for upper secondary education in Estonia.

In the European and specifically Estonian literature, various terms are used for the conceptualisation of general competencies, including key competences (CEDEFOP 2024) and basic skills (European Commission 2022), 21st-century skills (Haugas and Allemann 2021), and transversal skills (UNESCO 2023), which are transferable to all life domains. Various concepts such as skill, competence, competency, and capability are used. The term competence is often used interchangeably with competency.

General competencies are defined as attitudes, beliefs, skills, and knowledge related to human cognition and action, thereby influencing an individual’s ability to cope in various fields (Kikas and Toomela 2015). Key competences are similarly defined as a set of general skills, knowledge, and attitudes necessary for personal development, professional activity, and societal participation (Council Recommendation on Key Competences for Lifelong Learning 2018).

The differences in the definitions complicate the understanding and accurate interpretation of the meaning of general competence, making it essential to define the theoretical foundation this article relies on. The theoretical foundation of this article is based on the definition of key competences for lifelong learning (Council Recommendation on Key Competences for Lifelong Learning 2018).

According to the main principle of the Integrative Pedagogy Model (see Figure 1), the main elements of expertise, which are conceptual/theoretical, practical/experiential, self-regulative (the ability of learners to manage and monitor their own learning process), and socio-cultural knowledge (understanding of cultural, social, and contextual factors that influence learning and knowledge construction), are deeply integrated in professional and occupational competence, and therefore it is important that educational practises support such integration and connection between the different forms of expert knowledge (Tynjälä 2008; Tynjälä et al. 2022). The integration of work experience with theoretical studies (academic exploration and analysis of concepts, models, and frameworks that provide the foundational understanding of a particular subject) and self-reflection (the process through which learners critically evaluate and analyse their own learning experiences, actions, and thought processes) has a central role in learning. The main point of this integration is that the different forms of knowledge are not separate from each other, but connected and fused. A variety of pedagogical methods can facilitate this connection-making (ibid).

3. Methods

A phenomenological approach and qualitative research methods were used to conduct the study. The authors employed the phenomenological approach to explore the experiences of experts (such as teachers and headteachers who have experience with integrating formal education and work-based learning in upper secondary schools, and employers who have experience with cooperation with upper secondary schools) aiming to understand how they perceive and make sense of the researched phenomenon. As Moustakas (1994) highlights, this method involves bracketing, allowing us to set aside our own biases and fully engage with participants’ experiences, making it particularly suited for examining educational phenomena and gaining deep insights into the complexities of learning. Semi-structured interviews were employed, meaning that the authors used pre-determined questions, while allowing additional questions to emerge during the conversation to explore topics that arose during the dialogue. In total, eight individual interviews were conducted with school representatives, including three head teachers and five teachers, who represented seven different upper secondary schools located in different regions in Estonia. In addition, four semi-structured focus group interviews were conducted with employers from eight different fields, involving a total of fifteen employers.

The sample consists of teachers and head teachers who had experience integrating either work–life topics or workplace learning into learning in general upper secondary schools. Due to the limited number of experts who have experience with integrating formal education and work-based learning in upper secondary schools through institutionalised cooperation, the sample size for this study is rather small. However, the selected participants are recognised authorities, ensuring that the insights gathered are of high relevance and depth. The teachers in the sample are teaching elective courses—either entrepreneurship, economics, or career education—which are optional for schools to implement, and which usually involve workplace practises. The employers involved in the sample had experience either with cooperation with upper secondary schools or recruiting students. To ensure a comprehensive representation of the diverse fields in which students may gain work experience, we selected employers based on specific criteria. The primary criterion was that the enterprises should be relatively large, thereby possessing experience with multiple students. Additionally, we aimed to cover various fields of work and included employers from different regions. This approach is beneficial as it allows for a more holistic understanding of the integration of formal education and work-based learning across different industries and geographical areas, enhancing the applicability of the study’s findings.

During the interviews, the employers were asked about their experiences with recruiting students, their collaboration with the school, what the learning aims and expected outcomes would be, the learning needs and how better to prepare the students for their future work life, how the employers can help achieve these outcomes, and what suggestions they would offer for integrating work life and workplace learning into education at school. The focus and topics of the interviews conducted with the teachers and head teachers mostly overlapped with those of the interviews with the employers. In addition, there were questions about the pedagogical practises used in schools when integrating work–life topics or workplace learning.

All the interviews were transcribed verbatim. A qualitative 3-step thematic analysis was then used to analyse the transcripts. The authors began with data familiarisation, immersing themselves in the data through repeated readings, noting initial ideas and patterns (Braun and Clarke 2006). Next, they generated initial codes by identifying key features and creating codes to summarise them, ensuring meaningful aspects of integrating were captured for further analysis. Finally, they identified themes by grouping related codes into broader themes, helping to draw comprehensive insights from the data (Braun and Clarke 2006). To ensure the validity and reliability of the research, we employed triangulation by involving multiple researchers (author and co-authors) in the data analysis process. This approach allowed for the comparison of data and findings from interviews, thereby enhancing the robustness of our conclusions.

The experiences of employers, teachers, and head teachers were analysed together inductively using coding and categorising the results of the interviews. Codes and themes were derived directly from the data, avoiding the imposition of preconceived theories, to construct theoretical insights from the ground up. The initial coding was conducted following the approach outlined by Braun and Clarke (2006). The primary author performed the coding process by examining the data line-by-line to identify meaningful segments (e.g., quotes or phrases) relevant to the research questions. These segments were transcribed verbatim and assigned corresponding codes that summarised their content. The initial codes were then ordered into logical broader themes. The codes and themes were subsequently thoroughly discussed and verified by the co-authors to ensure accuracy and consistency in the process. Consequently, sub-themes were created, which were nested within larger, overarching themes. In total, six main themes emerged from the texts (see Figure 2).

4. Results

The results are presented through themes that emerged from inductive thematic analysis. In some cases, broader themes are presented as integrating smaller subthemes.

4.1. Recruitment, Guidance and Employment of Students

4.1.1. Recruiting the Students

The beliefs of the teachers and head teachers in our sample about the work experience of upper secondary school students are in line with the labour market statistics. Most students already have acquired work experience by the upper secondary school level, primarily through seasonal work in the summer, though some have also participated in student work camps. In the older classes (students aged 17–19), the number of students who work while at school during the school year, in the evenings, or on weekends also increases.

Most employers prefer to employ young people who have graduated from at least basic school (aged 15–16) for seasonal work. However, different legal aspects restrict the employment of underage students (students aged less than 18). In certain positions or tasks, there are restrictions for young people (e.g., cashier work in retail) or in certain sectors, such as in industry, underage students are prohibited to work in production areas for safety reasons. There are also restrictions on the length of working time, making it easier to involve young people in areas where flexible working hours can be offered. Involving underage students in work requires more documentation from the employers. Although the employers experience restrictions in recruiting minors, most of them still had experience with it. However, employers believe that the current legislation should be adjusted to better allow young people to be involved in work life.

Most students work in jobs that allow flexible schedules, performing simple tasks, mostly in the service, retail, and entertainment fields. In a few cases, the teachers brought examples of students conducting more complex work, for example, in the ICT field. According to the employers in our sample, a few students have acquired practical work experience in the media.

4.1.2. Guidance in the Workplace

Students usually have a mentor or supervisor (their go-to person) at the workplace, who guides them in their daily work with practical help related to the job. In other words, the learning by doing approach is believed to be efficient for students. Specific onboarding programmes for students are seen as unnecessary. Instead, specific issues like work safety or labour market legislation are particularly important in the case of students.

The employers in our sample state that the skills of mentoring or supervising are crucial factors that influence work experience for students. There is a shortage of capable mentors and supervisors, which might have a negative effect on the experience some students have at the workplace. Some companies try to provide special training for employees, especially those who have a duty to supervise and mentor students or apprentices.

“And, and again, we come back to the fact that a lot depends on how good the supervisor or mentor is. What kind of work experience it will become, it depends on the person and it is not only the person, but the person’s ability to supervise, so that either you actually instruct him how to do it, or you find that it’s easier for you to do it yourself”

Employer in retail

4.1.3. Motivation to Work and Recruitment

According to majority of the teachers and employers in our sample, the main motivation for students to work alongside their studies is to earn pocket money. However, it is believed that their motivation to work during the summer holidays is different, and they value gaining meaningful experience and believe it will benefit them in their future employment. It is believed that the more work experience the student has acquired, the more likely working is seen as an opportunity for personal development, including developing new skills and gaining valuable experience. In a few cases, some teachers believe that their main work motivation is earning money for investments.

Employers recruit students for a variety of reasons. First, the most frequently mentioned reason for involving young people is related to the practical need for additional personnel during the high seasons (mainly in summer and, depending on the field, also in winter). Secondly, contributing to society and providing practical experience for students is also seen as valuable. Some employers also see their role in developing the future workforce. The current need is especially perceived in rural areas or in the fields, where there is a lack of qualified workers. The employers realise the need to raise students’ awareness of the existence of different positions (e.g., analytical jobs in banking), which are little known among students but where the need for a skilled workforce is high. The cooperation with schools and recruiting students is seen as bilateral cooperation, where acknowledging the needs of employers is also seen as important.

4.2. The Benefits of Work for Young People

Both employers and teachers in our sample agreed that through work experience, students develop their key competences and career competencies, which is also the aim of the national curriculum in upper secondary school. It is believed that personal, social, and learning-to-learn competencies, and entrepreneurship are mainly developed while working, as are social skills, cooperation skills, self-awareness, and so on. The development of an entrepreneurial attitude, time management, and problem-solving skills are also highlighted, particularly by employers. Depending on the tasks, the students’ digital competence develops while they work on the computer.

“I don’t know if they realise it, but they actually acquire very good communication and sales skills, that’s why the job of a waiter is the most difficult. That you have to communicate with people and be calm with them, too. That I can’t tell you how much they’ll realise it, but, but they’ll definitely get that skill from there, how to solve situations, communicate, all of that”.

Teacher of entrepreneurship

Becoming punctual, developing a sense of responsibility and duty, and the formation of work habits are also seen as important benefits. The employers stated that earning their own money by working increases their self-confidence and independence, leading to self-realisation. Practical skills related to the field of work are developed, which are believed to be an advantage for future employment.

Working increases the students’ self-awareness, including knowing their capabilities, strengths and weaknesses. Different positions acquire real-life meaning for the students as they get to know the tasks better, and the responsibilities the daily job includes in practice. The students form a clearer understanding of possible jobs that are appropriate for them and develop their career aspirations and ambitions. The employers have experienced that not knowing one’s desired future career path and the lack of knowledge about the real-life content of different jobs is an issue in the labour market. Many students have unrealistic expectations about career development opportunities and how quickly they can move on to higher positions. This is where authentic work experience is seen as a valuable tool.

“That real life isn’t just social media, or that if someone has become a millionaire as a trendsetter, that means they’re one in ten million. Maybe it’s because there are some jobs that actually require physical presence”.

Employer in retail

In both groups, among representatives of the schools and employers, the majority of the respondents in our sample consider student attendance at work a natural part of growing up to be independent. But at the same time, in contrast to employers from the school’s perspective, it is considered important that working does not interfere with learning at school or lead to a decrease in-school results and motivation. In certain areas (e.g., retail trade), a few employers consider that a supportive attitude at school and home towards performing (unskilled) work is also important, and therefore sectoral stereotypes that have developed should be dismantled.

4.3. Integrating Work Life and Workplace Learning into Learning at School

Student employment for the purpose of earning money is perceived by the teachers and head teachers as an extracurricular activity. Some teachers and head teachers see the primary goal of upper secondary schools as providing academic education and preparing the students for tertiary education. Therefore, the integration of work experience, analysing and grading it as part of the curriculum is rather challenging. They also fear students leaving school to work, dropping out, or experiencing falling grades due to working.

However, some schools are more oriented towards skills-based learning and have either considered integration or are integrating work experience in an authentic setting into the learning process. In other words, gaining work experience is integrated into the school curriculum as part of an elective course, compulsory student research, or practical work or the school examination. The experience and the competencies developed during this are then analysed in the school setting, guided by the teacher.

4.3.1. Integration of Work–Life Topics into Lessons

Several opportunities are seen for integrating work–life topics into lessons, but it is believed that in some subject areas (e.g., natural sciences) it is more difficult. The connections between work life and learning at school seem more organic in elective courses (e.g., entrepreneurship and career education). Previous work experience is believed to benefit the student in the sense of understanding certain subject-related topics connected with the labour market (e.g., taxation, labour law), but also to develop financial literacy or understanding client perspectives while running student companies.

Work–life topics are integrated within some core and foundation subjects (e.g., languages); for example, when having to compile a CV and motivation letter during language lessons.

A few schools have organised specific study visits (or job-shadowing) in enterprises for teachers in order to increase the skills of the teachers in integrating work–life topics into their subject areas. The employers perceived that teachers need to implement such activities more often.

4.3.2. Practical Learning Activities in Collaboration with Employers as Real-Life Experiences

The employers, teachers, and headteachers discussed different forms of cooperation, with schools and enterprises working together to implement practical activities. The main aim of such cooperation is to bring real-life examples and practises into the schools.

The most common learning activities that most schools and enterprises offer include job-shadowing, study visits to companies, quest workshops, and lessons at school by practitioners in the field. Some schools also organise thematic weeks, in which students can become acquainted with representatives of different fields; career days and weeks to become acquainted with different jobs to develop the career awareness of the students. In most cases, there is a shortage of consistent and systematic cooperation in organising practical learning activities. It is stated that in many cases these practises rely on human relations and the initiative of certain teachers or employers.

However, there are examples of more consistent cooperation. In some schools, practical study days in companies are consistently organised for upper secondary school students in certain fields to introduce the field of work. Through these activities, the students acquire greater awareness about possible future careers and post-school pathways, and make connections between what they learn at school and real life in the field of work.

“Then we have cooperated with the local high school and, and with [name of college], so that those there, who are already high school students in a special physics class, so that they can really understand what this production process is, because the fear about production is high. That it is an ugly and black environment, but actually when they come, it’s not quite like that. We’ve had such days where they can do such, well, they practice a bit here and so that they can better understand the theory and to connect practice and perhaps motivate them to study such technical fields in the future”.

Employer in the field of production

The modular learning implemented in some schools allows the students to become more acquainted with different fields of work and through various elective courses and modules, therefore, they understand the jobs that interest them more.

Project and problem-based learning is also seen as a valuable way to cooperate with companies, although the lack of a consistent approach in current practises is a concern. The employers believe that one better way to implement this in the future would be to get the students to work on real-life problems that enterprises are facing, to activate new perspectives and input from the younger generations.

Some schools offer examples of projects implemented in cooperation with local partners, for example, teaching basic English to mothers of toddlers as part of an elective English course. Some students have initiated projects and applied for funding to implement collaborative projects, for example, for unemployed people. These initiatives are practised as part of elective courses or compulsory practical work or student research.

“But there were two students who now I can’t remember what, under what programme. But they did act as volunteers and, and they, their content was then the same way, at the moment with the unemployed such events well, let’s say then to hold events for them, it was like then within the framework of this voluntary, they, aa they wrote, now it comes to mind, they, wrote the project, but I don’t remember where it went through like a project, they got funding for it and then they acted”.

Head teacher at an upper secondary school

In conclusion, most of the employers consider it especially important to create consistency in any kind of cooperation, so that the collaborative activity does not remain a one-time activity that does not introduce any real change.

“And it’s just that, in addition to everything I’ve said before, I’d say that whatever form it’s going to come to be, but the important thing is that systematicity or not systematicity, but, there’s going to be consistency, that if we bring employers and, and students together once in the ninth grade, that’s not likely to be very fruitful in my opinion, that it should be like every year it’s going to be like reminding and going over to the students, what, what’s really there”.

Employer in the field of production

4.3.3. Practical In-School Work Experience as Part of the Learning

Alongside cooperation with enterprises and organisations outside the school, the schools also implement learning activities in the school setting that provide practical experience for the students. The practises vary from performing voluntary work at school (e.g., assisting school employees in various tasks) or giving lessons to younger students. These practises are integrated into learning in different ways. In some schools modular learning is implemented, and the students of specific modules (e.g., teaching module) take part in such learning activities as part of the studies in their chosen learning module. In other schools, students receive practical teaching experience during Teacher’s Day, and analyse the experience and competencies developed during career education lessons. School-based voluntary work can also be integrated as part of the school examination.

“We’re actually advocating as a school, we’re using this volunteering opportunity, so to speak, for example, we have IT-conscious young people here who are helping teachers or, or I don’t know. Yes, teachers on IT topics, right. In other words, we are also trying to compensate for the time resources of learners as with volunteering, that in fact, if they help here, they need to learn more, they will become more aware, they will be able to think through what they got from this experience. I don’t know, simpler things, that even organising some kind of room for exams is also volunteer work, because otherwise, first of all, to make the job easier for yourself, right, you don’t get to all six rooms all the time, to cup the tables, but secondly, so that the learners can understand what all this means, right, this kind of organizing work, that even in real life it is, maybe what you see from the picture, right, that there’s a lot of work behind it. That as a school, we also offer these volunteering opportunities”.

Head teacher of upper secondary school

4.3.4. Institutional Cooperation Between Schools and Enterprises

Some schools have established consistent institutional cooperation with enterprises to integrate learning at school and in an authentic work environment at upper secondary level. The most common learning activities in these cases are short-term internships in the workplace, community-based activities, like volunteering and job-shadowing. There are different types of internships, some are more oriented towards and connected with specific fields of study. For example, students studying economics or entrepreneurship at school undertake a short internship in a company operating in a field connected with their studies, in one case, the internship was organised in a foreign country. The internship is believed to let the students make better connections between the theory learned in school and real-life practice in the field. Student career awareness will increase as they choose the sub-field they are more interested in and associate their post-school educational or career path with the internship. In the case of conducting internships in a foreign country, the students develop knowledge and skills about the European market and foreign language skills. Several upper secondary schools also implement community practice (e.g., voluntary work) outside the school, in enterprises or other organisations.

A crucial part of the learning process is believed to be reflection. The students analyse and reflect on a practical experience and the competencies developed, usually both in written and oral form. This enables the schools to recognise the internship as part of curriculum-based learning. These activities are integrated into school-based learning in different ways, for example, as elective courses, part of the school examination, compulsory practical work, or student research.

Examples of institutional cooperation between companies and schools also include learning activities at school. Schools and enterprises, in some cases also involving higher or vocational education institutions, have initiated and developed elective courses, which are delivered by practitioners in the specific field of work.

“I’m from [the name of the company], and we’re the biggest employer in [the name of the city] and we’ve done, we’ve not yet worked with basic school and high school, but the idea is that we’re going to do this with [name of the school] in collaboration with [name of the vocational school], such a symbiosis that we’re actually going to introduce this kind of vocation, vocational awareness into senior secondary school”.

Employer in the field of production

“We have also started a small programme of game development in one of the upper secondary schools in [name of the city]. Upper secondary school students can choose game development as an elective course. That they are juniors, that we’re not hiring them, but we’re at least trying to get people interested, and what choices they might have in the future”.

Employer in the field of ICT

4.3.5. Additional Opportunities to Integrate Work Life into Learning

Some teachers and head teachers perceive the potential in recognising student work experience in an authentic work environment in formal education (at those schools that do not yet practice it). The practises already implemented in some schools are seen as possible tools, for example, to develop new elective courses and provide students with short-term internships. These elective courses could also be integrated with core and foundation subjects (e.g., language learning—preparing a CV, writing cover letters, practising written communication).

“It would be such that the student goes to work, so that at the end of this course he could even analyse his study diary or whatever he should have and defend,/…/through the same process, so that there would be a certain, well, let’s say, that there would be some structure, so what, well, how could it be like this, like this at school, if, well,/…/he wants to go, for example, somewhere [comment: to work] on the weekend. That why not then such an opportunity or for example on some evenings? Actually I’m thinking, it could be”.

Head teacher of upper secondary school

However, in establishing such practises, it is crucial to carefully consider whether the learning activity is appropriate for this specific field of study, and whether the learning process is supported with appropriate pedagogical tools. In other words, the work experience needs to be integrated into the curriculum and not conducted separately. Students need to analyse and reflect on the experience and competencies developed with the help of their teacher. Participation in a summer work camp is also seen as a valuable experience, which could be reflected upon and analysed in school and could be formally recognised.

An effort to create new learning materials for schools (e.g., video stories about different occupations and workplaces) to raise career awareness among more students is also perceived as valuable.

Organising job-shadowing or job-bites in companies for teachers is proposed to encourage the implementation of different integration practises. Teachers would then make connections between what is taught in their lessons and real-life practises at work in different fields. Similarly to the educational leader development programme, actors from the public sector in cooperation with enterprises could also offer such opportunities to teachers for professional development.

“But if our teachers don’t really understand things, it’s very difficult to convey that to the kids as well, that it’s definitely exciting for the kids to come [comment: to study visits/job-shadowing] and it’s really cool and it has to be, but I think we should maybe also think about how the teacher gets that wisdom himself/herself and how he/she can continue to integrate that wisdom into his/her classes then”.

Employer in banking

A number of employers recognise that more effective and efficient cooperation between schools and employers requires dialogue between the parties and the exchange of ideas in order to develop new models and opportunities for cooperation. It is important to organise joint meetings and find suitable opportunities for collaboration.

“I used to say that these relationships don’t develop when everyone is sitting in their office or in their corner or in their class or in their office. That one option is also to simply create these points of contact, gatherings. Not only is it for this purpose, we do, we decided to do something together, but I don’t know of any such gatherings for integration purposes that would enable discussions to develop new collaboration to form for future activities”.

Employer in retail

In addition, some employers would also like to contribute more to curriculum development in order to make learning more practical and related to work life, and make better connections between what is being studied at school and what is needed in real life.

4.4. Barriers in the Organisation of Collaborative Learning Activities

Some schools and some employers experience different barriers when implementing learning activities and integrating workplace learning into school-based learning. In the case of foreign cooperation, a shortage of financial resources has arisen, and an uncertain situation is experienced due to using project-based funding, which may not always be sustainable. Finding a suitable time to implement the learning activities could also be challenging, as enterprises in some fields prefer to involve the students in the high season (e.g., in the summer). In specific fields, for example, in production, enterprises experience prohibitions due to safety considerations, which limits the tasks the students can perform.

Some employers believe that the Estonian education system should be more flexible to allow consistent cooperation between employers and schools. One example is given of how workplace learning is implemented as part of general education studies in companies in neighbouring Finland.

“And, and the Finnish reference I referred to is that, in my opinion, it is the seventh grade or the eighth grade, where two weeks of schooling are planned as work training and the young people can then choose for themselves, where how, but it is like a state-supported thing. I don’t know all the details, but this is implemented within the school system, instead of employers having to fight for their future employees like we do”.

Employer in retail

Some employers find that cooperation opportunities, in terms of integration, could also be complemented by a more practical curriculum, in which real-life topics (e.g., financial literacy) would be part of the core or foundation subjects taught in school. The employers are willing to contribute to teaching these topics and conducting these learning activities.

4.5. Systematic Collaboration at Lower School Levels

Some employers in our sample state that the integration of work–life topics and workplace learning into formal education should start earlier than at upper secondary school. It is considered that the sooner the connections between school and work life are established, the more effective (especially in the sense of developing career awareness) the cooperation can be. A crucial point that arose was that as the students have to make the first choice in their further education after basic school (in 9th grade, aged 15–16), it is especially important to encourage such work–life integration at a younger age in order to develop career awareness.

The form of cooperation and the learning activities and aims are different during the lower levels of education. Some examples of cooperation in lower school levels—between kindergartens or elementary schools and enterprises—were discussed, including topics such as work safety.

“In fact, it would be ideal if this integration started from an early age and in fact we do have some good examples in some regions, where we have developed cooperative relations with our nearby kindergarten”.

Employer in retail

In primary and basic school (grades 1–9), an initiative called “Tööle kaasa!” (Kids at work) is organised for the students at the state level to introduce jobs, daily work, and the workplace of their parents. The initiative is highly valued by employers, and they state that such activities should be implemented more often.

At the younger levels (especially in primary school), the ability of employers to adapt learning activities to a suitable format for the target group is considered important. The learning aims, forms, and activities are different, and the employers need to be equipped with skills to conduct these. The focus of the activities at primary level is more related to developing core values than acquiring practical experience or knowledge. This includes valuing and respecting jobs and the employees who do them (unskilled jobs). The need for this is especially evident in some fields (e.g., in retail), where a lot of front-line employees are occupied in unskilled positions.

“To notice, involve and take responsibility. That I think that in reality at this age these values should begin to arise for the person and, and in working life, it is also very important precisely how you notice something, how you involve someone and how you take responsibility for your processes. That it, this, in this age group could really be guaranteed through playfulness. And, and I don’t think it’s really important in this age group, to be very clear that whether I want to be a cop, a doctor, a hairdresser or, or a baker, and it’s just that in reality it’s an emergence of core values. I think it’s important that they understand what this working life is really built on and what their own learning is based on. It’s not about who you are in terms of profession, it’s about what your core values are and how you act in accordance with your core values”.

Employer in banking

4.6. Employers’ Expectations of Schools

Most of the employers in our sample state the importance of emphasising the development of key competences (especially personal, social, and learning-to-learn competencies) and career competencies in upper secondary education. The employers expect that students in school will develop skills that are important in work life, and that these overlap with most of the key competences for lifelong learning (referred to as general competencies in the national curriculum). In other words, the development of the skills needed in future work life are set as educational aims in the curriculum. For example, the students should develop the ability to set goals and targets, develop the courage and skill to communicate, as well as teamwork skills, entrepreneurial skills, and the willingness to use their initiative. The need to develop the ability to search for information, logical and critical thinking, and the ability to use office software was also highlighted.

Most of the employers highlighted the importance of the students developing a clearer understanding of their future career prospects, interests, ambitions, possible post-school options earlier, with the help of school. The practical need for that is supported, as many students and young people tend to work only for a short period of time in enterprises in certain jobs, and then, they experiment with other occupations as they are unsure of their career path. This requires employers to find additional resources and train new employees for the position all over again.

Another concern of some employers, and consequently an expectation of the school, is related to the lack of work habits and appropriate work–life attitudes among students. They proposed that the school could take a bigger role in forming the necessary attitudes, including a sense of responsibility and duty, and a willingness to work. At the same time, the employers understand that it is a wider problem and not only the responsibility of the schools. The role of the family in forming these attitudes is also important.

“What we expect from the schools is what we talked to each other, that is perhaps the internship and summer work, especially in the case of the internship, for example, to somehow make it clear to the students that it is a real job and it needs to be taken seriously”.

Employer in retail

It is also considered important to form realistic expectations of students regarding work life (e.g., available job positions for students, career progress, salary).

The need to integrate more topics related to work life into formal education and implement collaborative learning activities with enterprises is noted. Collaboration and integration are also seen as important for pedagogical outcomes. It is believed that it would improve students’ ability to connect the knowledge and skills learned at school and in real life, and to construct new competencies, which can be applied in different settings through work. The employers also believe that better preparation of students to enter the labour market could be achieved by integrating more work–life topics (e.g., labour taxes, labour law, applying for a job) into school learning.

The employers see that lessons in upper secondary school should be more personalised, allowing students to focus primarily on the development of their strengths in the learning process. Not all students can be equally strong in all subject areas, it is considered important to allow certain individualisation in order to let them focus on developing their strengths.

“In high school, we could have learning based on strengths. Perhaps this person still, at the age of entering high school, already developed some strengths that he could realise and develop for himself through the school support and start building a future accordingly”.

Employer in banking

More broadly, gaining international experience among representatives of educational institutions and educational policymakers is important. Experiencing and acquiring knowledge about different practises in the world allows us to see new perspectives in order to implement changes in educational policies in general.

5. Conclusions

In conclusion, both employers and schools recognise the importance of integrating workplace learning into formal education to develop key competences for lifelong learning—particularly personal, social, and learning-to-learn competencies, as well as entrepreneurial competencies—and to enhance career awareness in students. The development of work-related competencies, such as time management, problem-solving, and digital literacy, is viewed as essential by employers for students’ future success in the labour market. The development competencies do not occur in isolation; to support this process, the learning experience must be guided by appropriate pedagogical tools. Reflection on workplace experiences is crucial for students to connect theoretical knowledge with real-life applications. Schools use various pedagogical tools, such as worksheets, practice diaries, and portfolios, to support student reflection, which is crucial for meaningful learning experiences.

Employers emphasise the importance of consistent collaboration with schools, early career exploration, and work–life integration to equip students with practical skills, a sense of responsibility, and realistic career expectations. While some schools have successfully integrated work experience into their curriculum, more consistent and structured cooperation is needed. By integrating authentic work experiences into the learning process, students can acquire valuable competencies aligned with national curriculum goals, enhancing their readiness for the labour market. Employers also advocate for a more flexible, individualised curriculum that better aligns with the skills needed in the labour market. Both parties recognise the importance of collaboration and the need for the establishment of more consistent, institutionalised collaboration. However, they also identify several barriers, including limited resources (such as additional time and funding) and the inflexibility of school curricula in integrating workplace learning into formal education. From the school’s perspective, it is considered crucial that workplace learning does not disrupt academic learning or negatively impact school performance and student motivation.

6. Discussion

Integrating workplace learning into formal education is essential for developing competencies necessary for lifelong learning and career readiness. In the case of institutionalised cooperation, the teachers utilise various pedagogical tools (that mirror the tools indicated in the model rather well) to facilitate student reflection, a crucial component of the learning process. Reflection, as outlined in Tynjälä’s Integrative Pedagogy Model (Tynjälä 2008; Tynjälä et al. 2022), should connect theory with practice, helping students apply their knowledge to real-world contexts. This reflective process enables students to critically analyse their experiences, identify learning outcomes, and integrate them into their personal and professional development. In the case of institutionalised cooperation, schools utilise various pedagogical tools, including worksheets, practice diaries, and portfolios, to foster student reflection, which is essential for developing key competences.

However, schools also implement inconsistent and non-institutionalised practical learning activities, such as voluntary job-shadowing or study visits, in which the absence of appropriate pedagogical tools and reflection in the learning process hinder achieving the desired learning outcomes. The results indicate that, although teachers employ various tools to integrate work practice into school learning, employers would prefer to see more activities in this area and view it as the school’s responsibility, which could be effectively implemented through collaboration. A more structured approach is necessary to better align workplace learning with educational practises.

Employers stress the importance of consistent collaboration between schools and enterprises to ensure that students acquire relevant skills for future employment. They emphasise the importance of developing key competences for lifelong learning and career awareness to effectively adapt to the demands of the workforce. They identify elective courses, such as entrepreneurship and economics, as valuable pathways within the school curriculum to achieve this goal. Employers also advocate for earlier career awareness and more emphasis on work-related topics, like labour law and taxation, to better prepare students for the workforce and reduce the costs of retraining young employees.

The learning outcomes of the integration practises greatly overlap with the attitudes, knowledge, and skills that students are believed to develop during their authentic work experience. These outcomes are also supported by other research in the field (Erss et al. 2024). However, working in enterprises is typically perceived as independent from learning at school (Loogma et al. 2024). This indicates that actual integration is lacking, although some students may still benefit from working and develop key competences.

Tynjälä’s model suggests that integrating workplace learning into the curriculum with appropriate pedagogical tools can help students acquire competencies enshrined in the national curriculum. The perceptions of teachers, head teachers, and employers emphasise the need to integrate work experience into the learning process using appropriate pedagogical tools that facilitate the achievement of desired learning outcomes. Additionally, Billett and Ovens (2007) highlight that reflection in workplace learning is a social and situated process, occurring not only individually but also in collaboration with teachers, peers, and workplace mentors. This collaborative reflection enhances students’ ability to link practical experience with theoretical knowledge, promoting deeper learning and the development of professional identities. Reflection, which is currently absent in practice within the learning process, must be thoroughly addressed in the classroom to achieve the intended learning outcomes.

There is considerable learning potential in the classroom, as based on the Estonian labour market statistics, most upper secondary school students have acquired some sort of work experience, at least by the final two years of their studies. The question therefore is how best to benefit from this potential in a meaningful way.

6.1. Limitations

The authors acknowledge that the study’s limited sample, due to the restricted number of experts in the field, imposes constraints on the generalizability of the findings. The authors emphasise that, while the findings offer valuable contributions to understanding the phenomenon, caution should be exercised when applying them beyond the scope of the study’s participants. One limitation of the study is that the phenomenon has been explained based on the context of Estonia, where integration practises are still in the early stages and many small enterprises operate with limited resources.

6.2. Implications and Significance

While the findings of this study may not be generalizable to all contexts, they provide valuable insights for the development of career education in Estonia. These results will be shared with the target group to inform future practises and guide practical applications in the field. On a broader policy level, the significance of learner-centred approaches, which encompass diverse learning environments, is increasingly emphasised. The integration of workplace learning is a critical component of this process; however, research on the current implementation of such practises remains limited. This study aims to contribute to policy development by offering actionable insights that can inform educators, policymakers, and other relevant stakeholders.

Building on the current study, future research should shift its focus towards examining students’ perspectives, particularly in relation to the learning outcomes they achieve through participation in workplace learning activities in upper secondary schools. This includes understanding their experiences, needs, and the broader impact of such activities on their learning outcomes. It is essential to gather comprehensive insights from all three parties involved—students, schools, and employers—to fully grasp the multifaceted nature of these workplace learning experiences.