Do Urban Hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus) Represent a Relevant Source of Zoonotic Diseases?
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Literature Search and Inclusion Criteria
2.2. Exclusion Criteria
2.3. Data Extraction
2.4. Publication Bias
2.5. Comparing Prevalences—Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Bacterial Diseases
3.2. Fungal Diseases
3.3. Parasitic Diseases
3.4. Viral Diseases
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A. Comparing Prevalences of B. burgdorferi (s.l.) in Different Geographical Areas
Positive Cases of B. burgdorferi (s.l.) | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Geographical Area (Type) | n | O | E | O-E | (O-E)2/E | p |
Hamburg (urban) | 41 | 4 | 6 | −1.849 | 0.58277 | 0.0980 |
Berlin (urban) | 19 | 2 | 3 | −0.724 | 0.19274 | 0.1050 |
Munich (urban) | 24 | 3 | 3 | −0.434 | 0.05495 | 0.1250 |
Lake Constance (rural) | 6 | 2 | 1 | 1.141 | 1.51682 | 0.3333 |
Upper-Rhine Valley (rural) | 24 | 5 | 3 | 1.606 | 0.75063 | 0.2100 |
Rhine Valley-Main Area (rural) | 54 | 8 | 8 | 0.265 | 0.00906 | 0.1480 |
Total | 168 | 24 | 24 | 3.11 | 0.1431 | |
Negative Cases of B. burgdorferi (s.l.) | ||||||
Geographical Area (Type) | n | O | E | O-E | (O-E)2/E | p |
Hamburg (urban) | 41 | 37 | 35 | 1.9 | 0.10 | 0.9024 |
Berlin (urban) | 19 | 17 | 16 | 0.7 | 0.03 | 0.8947 |
Munich (urban) | 24 | 21 | 21 | 0.4 | 0.01 | 0.8750 |
Lake Constance (rural) | 6 | 4 | 5 | −1.1 | 0.25 | 0.6667 |
Upper-Rhine Valley (rural) | 24 | 19 | 21 | −1.6 | 0.12 | 0.7917 |
Rhine Valley-Main Area (rural) | 54 | 46 | 46 | −0.3 | 0.00 | 0.8519 |
Total | 168 | 144 | 144 | 0.51 | 0.8569 | |
Statistical Results | ||||||
df | 5 | |||||
Obtained Chi-square | 3.621 | p-value = 0.605163 | ||||
Critical Chi-square | 11.07 | critical p-value = 0.05 |
Positive Cases of Dermatophytosis | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Country (Type) | n | O | E | O-E | (O-E)2/E | p |
UK (rural) | 57 | 5 | 20 | −15.259 | 11.48351 | 0.088 |
Poland (urban) | 182 | 101 | 65 | 36.256 | 20.30497 | 0.5549 |
France (rural) | 24 | 2 | 9 | −6.545 | 5.01747 | 0.083 |
UK (urban) | 77 | 13 | 27 | −14.452 | 7.62629 | 0.168 |
Total | 340 | 121 | 121 | 44.43224 | 0.3557 | |
Negative Cases of B. dermatophytosis | ||||||
Country (Type) | n | O | E | O-E | (O-E)2/E | p |
UK (rural) | 57 | 52 | 37 | 15.3 | 6.34 | 0.912 |
Poland (urban) | 182 | 81 | 117 | −36.3 | 11.21 | 0.4451 |
France (rural) | 24 | 22 | 15 | 6.5 | 2.77 | 0.917 |
UK (urban) | 77 | 64 | 50 | 14.5 | 4.21 | 0.832 |
Total | 340 | 219 | 219 | 0.0 | 24.53 | 0.6443 |
Statistical Results | ||||||
df | 3 | |||||
Obtained Chi-square | 68.961 | p-value < 0.001 | ||||
Critical Chi-square | 7.81 | critical p-value = 0.05 |
References
- Chu, E.W.; Karr, J.R. Environmental Impact: Concept, Consequences, Measurement. Ref. Modul. Life Sci. 2017. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-Habitat). World Cities Report-Envisaging the Future of Cities; United Nations Human Settlements Programme: Nairobi, Kenya, 2022. [Google Scholar]
- Bradley, C.A.; Altizer, S. Urbanization and the Ecology of Wildlife Diseases. Trends Ecol. Evol. 2007, 22, 95–102. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Bateman, P.W.; Fleming, P.A.; Fleming, T.; le Comber, S. Big City Life: Carnivores in Urban Environments. J. Zool. 2012, 287, 1–23. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nielsen, A.B.; van den Bosch, M.; Maruthaveeran, S.; van den Bosch, C.K. Species Richness in Urban Parks and Its Drivers: A Review of Empirical Evidence Related Papers. Urban Ecosyst. 2013, 17, 305–327. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Coman, I.A.; Cooper-norris, C.E.; Longing, S.; Perry, G. It Is a Wild World in the City: Urban Wildlife Conservation and Communication in the Age of COVID-19. Diversity 2022, 14, 539. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gazzard, A.; Baker, P.J. What Makes a House a Home? Nest Box Use by West European Hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus) Is Influenced by Nest Box Placement, Resource Provisioning and Site-Based Factors. PeerJ Comput. Sci. 2022, 10, e13662. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cadotte, M.W.; Yasui, S.L.E.; Livingstone, S.; MacIvor, J.S. Are Urban Systems Beneficial, Detrimental, or Indifferent for Biological Invasion? Biol. Invasions 2017, 19, 3489–3503. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Magouras, I.; Brookes, V.J.; Jori, F.; Martin, A.; Pfeiffer, D.U.; Dürr, S. Emerging Zoonotic Diseases: Should We Rethink the Animal–Human Interface? Front. Vet. Sci. 2020, 7, 748. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wilcox, B.A.; Steele, J.A. One Health and Emerging Zoonotic Diseases. In Handbook of Global Health; Springer: Cham, Switzerland, 2021; pp. 2099–2147. [Google Scholar]
- Amori, G. Erinaceus europaeus. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species; pp. 5–7. Available online: https://www.iucnredlist.org/ (accessed on 3 February 2023).
- Williams, B.M.; Baker, P.J.; Thomas, E.; Wilson, G.; Judge, J.; Yarnell, R.W. Reduced Occupancy of Hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus) in Rural England and Wales: The Influence of Habitat and an Asymmetric Intra-Guild Predator. Sci. Rep. 2018, 8, 12156. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pettett, C.E.; Johnson, P.J.; Moorhouse, T.P.; Macdonald, D.W. National Predictors of Hedgehog Erinaceus europaeus Distribution and Decline in Britain. Mamm. Rev. 2018, 48, 1–6. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mitchell-Jones, A.J.; Amori, G.; Bogdanowicz, W.; Krystufek, B.; Reijnders, P.J.H.; Spitzenberger, F.; Stubbe, M.; Thissen, J.B.M.; Vohralik, V.; Zima, J. The Atlas of European Mammals; Poyser: London, UK, 1999; ISBN 9780856611308. [Google Scholar]
- Bencatel, J.; Sabino-Marques, H.; Álvares, F.; Moura, A.E.; Barbosa, A.M. Atlas de Mamíferos de Portugal, 2nd ed.; University of Évora: Évora, Portugal, 2019; ISBN 9789898550804. [Google Scholar]
- Jota Baptista, C.; Seixas, F.; Gonzalo-Orden, J.M.; Oliveira, P.A. Can the European Hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus) Be a Sentinel for One Health Concerns? Biologics 2021, 1, 61–69. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jahfari, S.; Ruyts, S.C.; Frazer-Mendelewska, E.; Jaarsma, R.; Verheyen, K.; Sprong, H. Melting Pot of Tick-Borne Zoonoses: The European Hedgehog Contributes to the Maintenance of Various Tick-Borne Diseases in Natural Cycles Urban and Suburban Areas. Parasit. Vectors 2017, 10, 134. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Gray, J.S.; Kahl, O.; Janetzki-Mittman, C.; Stein, J.; Guy, E. Acquisition of Borrelia Burgdorferi by Ixodes Ricinus Ticks Fed on the European Hedgehog, Erinaceus europaeus L. Exp. Appl. Acarol. 1994, 18, 485–491. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Skuballa, J.; Petney, T.; Pfäffle, M.; Oehme, R.; Hartelt, K.; Fingerle, V.; Kimmig, P.; Taraschewski, H. Ticks and Tick-Borne Diseases Occurrence of Different Borrelia Burgdorferi Sensu Lato Genospecies Including B. afzelii, B. bavariensis, and B. Spielmanii in Hedgehogs (Erinaceus Spp.) in Europe. Ticks Tick-Borne Dis. 2012, 3, 8–13. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Silaghi, C.; Skuballa, J.; Thiel, C.; Pfister, K.; Petney, T.; Pfäffle, M.; Taraschewski, H.; Passos, L.M.F. The European Hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus)–A Suitable Reservoir for Variants of Anaplasma Phagocytophilum? Ticks Tick-Borne Dis. 2012, 3, 49–54. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Smith, J.M.; Marples, M.J. Trichophyton mentagrophytes Var. Erinacei. Sabouraudia 1963, 3, 1–10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Klingmueller, G.; Heymer, T.; Sobich, E. Trichophyton mentagrophytes Var. erinacei-Infection of Hedgehog|Trichophyton-mentagrophytes-var.-erinacei-infektion vom igel. Hautarzt 1979, 30, 140–143. [Google Scholar]
- Lawson, B.; Franklinos, L.H.V.; Rodriguez-Ramos Fernandez, J.; Wend-Hansen, C.; Nair, S.; Macgregor, S.K.; John, S.K.; Pizzi, R.; Núñez, A.; Ashton, P.M.; et al. Salmonella enteritidis ST183: Emerging and Endemic Biotypes Affecting Western European Hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus) and People in Great Britain. Sci. Rep. 2018, 8, 2449. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Heir, E.; Lindstedt, B.A.; Nygård, I.; Vardund, T.; Hasseltvedt, V.; Kapperud, G. Molecular Epidemiology of Salmonella typhimurium Isolates from Human Sporadic and Outbreak Cases. Epidemiol. Infect. 2002, 128, 373–382. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sangster, L.; Blake, D.P.; Robinson, G.; Hopkins, T.C.; Sa, R.C.C.; Cunningham, A.A.; Chalmers, R.M.; Lawson, B. Detection and Molecular Characterisation of Cryptosporidium parvum in British European Hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus). Vet. Parasitol. 2016, 217, 39–44. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chilvers, B.L.; Cowan, P.E.; Waddington, D.C.; Kelly, P.J.; Brown, T.J. The Prevalence of Infection of Giardia Spp. and Cryptosporidium Spp. in Wild Animals on Farmland, Southeastern North Island, New Zealand. Int. J. Env. Health Res. 1998, 8, 59–64. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Collares-Pereira, M.; Korver, H.; Terpstra, W.J.; Santos-Reis, M.; Ramalhinho, M.G.; Mathias, M.L.; Oom, M.M.; Fons, R.; Libois, R.; Petrucci-Fonseca, F. First Epidemiological Data on Pathogenic Leptospires Isolated on the Azorean Islands. Eur. J. Epidemiol. 1997, 13, 435–441. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Corman, V.M.; Kallies, R.; Philipps, H.; Gopner, G.; Muller, M.A.; Eckerle, I.; Brunink, S.; Drosten, C.; Drexler, J.F. Characterization of a Novel Betacoronavirus Related to Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus in European Hedgehogs. J. Virol. 2014, 88, 717–724. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Monchatre-Leroy, E.; Boué, F.; Boucher, J.M.; Renault, C.; Moutou, F.; Gouilh, M.A.; Umhang, G. Identification of Alpha and Beta Coronavirus in Wildlife Species in France: Bats, Rodents, Rabbits, and Hedgehogs. Viruses 2017, 9, 364. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- de Sabato, L.; di Bartolo, I.; de Marco, M.A.; Moreno, A.; Lelli, D.; Cotti, C.; Delogu, M.; Vaccari, G. Can Coronaviruses Steal Genes from the Host as Evidenced in Western European Hedgehogs by EriCoV Genetic Characterization? Viruses 2020, 12, 1471. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sterne, J.A.C.; Sutton, A.J.; Ioannidis, J.P.A.; Terrin, N.; Jones, D.R.; Lau, J.; Carpenter, J.; Rücker, G.; Harbord, R.M.; Schmid, C.H.; et al. Recommendations for Examining and Interpreting Funnel Plot Asymmetry in Meta-Analyses of Randomised Controlled Trials. BMJ 2011, 343, d4002. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kurtzke, J.F. On Statistical Testing of Prevalence Studies. J. Chronic. Dis. 1966, 19, 909–922. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rautio, A.; Isomursu, M.; Valtonen, A.; Hirvelä-Koski, V.; Kunnasranta, M. Mortality, Diseases and Diet of European Hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus) in an Urban Environment in Finland. Mamm. Res. 2016, 61, 161–169. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Krawczyk, A.I.; van Leeuwen, A.D.; Jacobs-Reitsma, W.; Wijnands, L.M.; Bouw, E.; Jahfari, S.; van Hoek, A.H.A.M.; van der Giessen, J.W.B.; Roelfsema, J.H.; Kroes, M.; et al. Presence of Zoonotic Agents in Engorged Ticks and Hedgehog Faeces from Erinaceus europaeus in (Sub) Urban Areas. Parasit. Vectors 2015, 8, 210. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gnat, S.; Łagowski, D.; Dyląg, M.; Nowakiewicz, A. European Hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus L.) as a Reservoir of Dermatophytes in Poland. Microb. Ecol. 2022, 84, 363–375. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Morris, P.; English, M.P. Trichophyton mentagrophytes Var. erinacei in British Hedgehogs. Med. Mycol. 1969, 7, 122–128. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Maria Lesiczka, P.; Hrazdilová, K.; Majerová, K.; Fonville, M.; Sprong, H.; Hönig, V.; Hofmannová, L.; Papežík, P.; Růžek, D.; Zurek, L.; et al. The Role of Peridomestic Animals in the Eco-Epidemiology of Anaplasma phagocytophilum. Microb. Ecol. 2021, 82, 602–612. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Hofmannová, L.; Juránková, J. Survey of Toxoplasma gondii and Trichinella Spp. in Hedgehogs Living in Proximity to Urban Areas in the Czech Republic. Parasitol. Res. 2019, 118, 711–714. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Thamm, S.; Kalko, E.K.V.; Wells, K. Ectoparasite Infestations of Hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus) Are Associated with Small-Scale Landscape Structures in an Urban-Suburban Environment. Ecohealth 2009, 6, 404–413. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Delogu, M.; Cotti, C.; Lelli, D.; Sozzi, E.; Trogu, T.; Lavazza, A.; Garuti, G.; Castrucci, M.R.; Vaccari, G.; de Marco, M.A.; et al. Eco-Virological Preliminary Study of Potentially Emerging Pathogens in Hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus) Recovered at a Wildlife Treatment and Rehabilitation Center in Northern Italy. Animals 2020, 10, 407. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Vanmechelen, B.; Vergote, V.; Merino, M.; Verbeken, E.; Maes, P. Common Occurrence of Belerina Virus, a Novel Paramyxovirus Found in Belgian Hedgehogs. Sci. Rep. 2020, 10, 19341. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Keesing, F.; Holt, R.D.; Ostfeld, R.S. Effects of Species Diversity on Disease Risk. Ecol. Lett. 2006, 9, 485–498. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- LoGiudice, K.; Ostfeld, R.S.; Schmidt, K.A.; Keesing, F. The Ecology of Infectious Disease: Effects of Host Diversity and Community Composition on Lyme Disease Risk. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2003, 100, 567–571. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schmidt, K.A.; Ostfeld, R.S. Biodiversity and the Dilution Effect in Disease Ecology. Ecology 2001, 82, 609–619. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Allan, B.F.; Keesing, F.; Ostfeld, R.S. Effect of Forest Fragmentation on Lyme Disease Risk. Conserv. Biol. 2003, 17, 267–272. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Svitálková, Z.; Haruštiaková, D.; Mahríková, L.; Berthová, L.; Slovák, M.; Kocianová, E.; Kazimírová, M. Anaplasma Phagocytophilum Prevalence in Ticks and Rodents in an Urban and Natural Habitat in South-Western Slovakia. Parasit. Vectors 2015, 8, 276. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Vieira, T.S.W.J.; Vieira, R.F.d.C.; do Nascimento, D.A.G.; Tamekuni, K.; Toledo, R.d.S.; Chandrashekar, R.; Marcondes, M.; Biondo, A.W.; Vidotto, O. Avaliação Sorológica de Patógenos Transmitidos Por Carrapatos Em Cães Urbanos e Rurais Do Estado Do Paraná, Brasil. Rev. Bras. Parasitol. Veterinária 2013, 22, 104–109. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Farikoski, I.O.; Medeiros, L.S.; Carvalho, Y.K.; Ashford, D.A.; Figueiredo, E.E.S.; Fernandes, D.V.G.S.; Silva, P.J.B.; Ribeiro, V.M.F. The Urban and Rural Capybaras (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris) as Reservoir of Salmonella in the Western Amazon, Brazil. Pesq. Vet. Bras. 2019, 39, 66–69. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Georg, L.K.; Hand, E.A.; Menges, R.A. Observations on Rural and Urban Ringworm. J. Investig. Derm. 1956, 27, 335–353. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Pontes, Z.B.; Oliveira, A.C.; Guerra, F.Q.; Pontes, L.R.; Santos, J.P. Distribution of Dermatophytes from Soils of Urban and Rural Areas of Cities of Paraiba State, Brazil. Rev. Inst. Med. Trop. Sao Paulo 2013, 55, 377–383. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gnat, S.; Nowakiewicz, A.; Łagowski, D.; Zięba, P. Host-And Pathogen-Dependent Susceptibility and Predisposition to Dermatophytosis. J. Med. Microbiol. 2019, 68, 823–836. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- le Barzic, C.; Cmokova, A.; Denaes, C.; Arné, P.; Hubka, V.; Guillot, J.; Risco-Castillo, V. Detection and Control of Dermatophytosis in Wild European Hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus) Admitted to a French Wildlife Rehabilitation Centre. J. Fungi. 2021, 7, 74. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Saldanha, I.F.; Lawson, B.; Goharriz, H.; Rodriguez-Ramos Fernandez, J.; John, S.K.; Fooks, A.R.; Cunningham, A.A.; Johnson, N.; Horton, D.L. Extension of the Known Distribution of a Novel Clade C Betacoronavirus in a Wildlife Host. Epidemiol. Infect. 2019, 147, E169. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Page, M.J.; McKenzie, J.E.; Bossuyt, P.M.; Boutron, I.; Hoffmann, T.C.; Mulrow, C.D.; Shamseer, L.; Tetzlaff, J.M.; Akl, E.; Brennan, S.; et al. The PRISMA 2020 statement: An updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ 2021, 372, 105906. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Agent | p (%) 1 | n | City/Local | Country | Ref | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Bacteria | Borrelia burgdorferi s.l. | 10% | 41 | Hamburg | Germany | [19] |
Borrelia burgdorferi s.l. | 11% | 19 | Berlin | Germany | [19] | |
Borrelia burgdorferi s.l. | 13% | 24 | Munich | Germany | [19] | |
Salmonella spp. | 57% | 37 | Joensuu | Finland | [33] | |
Salmonella spp. | 10% | 90 | Flevoland, Gelderland, Noord-Holland, Utrecht, and Zuid-Holland | The Netherlands | [34] | |
Pasteurella multocida | 8% | 37 | Joensuu | Finland | [33] | |
Corynebacterium ulcerans | 14% | 37 | Joensuu | Finland | [33] | |
Staphylococcus intermedius | 5% | 37 | Joensuu | Finland | [33] | |
Campylobacter spp. | 1% | 90 | Flevoland, Gelderland, Noord-Holland, Utrecht, and Zuid-Holland | The Netherlands | [34] | |
E. coli (ESC-resistant) | 71% | 90 | Flevoland, Gelderland, Noord-Holland, Utrecht, and Zuid-Holland | The Netherlands | [34] | |
Fungi | Dermatophytes | 55% | 182 | (not specified—six cities with more than 100,000 inhabitants) | Poland | [35] |
Dermatophytes | 17% | 77 | Berkshire, Cardiganshire, Devon, Essex, Hertfordshire, Leicestershire, London, Norfolk, Somerset, Surrey, and Yorkshire | UK | [36] | |
Parasites | Anaplasma phagocytophilum | 96% | 112 | Brno, Prague, and České Budějovice | Czech Republic | [37] |
Toxoplasma gondii | 19% | 26 | Brno, Prague, and České Budějovice | Czech Republic | [38] | |
Fleas | 89% | 56 | Ulm | Germany | [39] | |
Ticks | 88% | 56 | Ulm | Germany | [39] | |
Giardia spp. | 11% | 90 | Flevoland, Gelderland, Noord-Holland, Utrecht, and Zuid-Holland | The Netherlands | [34] | |
Cryptosporidium spp. | 9% | 90 | Flevoland, Gelderland, Noord-Holland, Utrecht, and Zuid-Holland | The Netherlands | [34] | |
Viruses | Erinaceus coronaviruses | 53% | 19 | Bologna, Casalecchio, Minerbio, Lugo, Copparo, Imola, and Granarolo | Italy | [40] |
Agent | p (%) 1 | n | City/Local | Country | Ref | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Bacteria | Borrelia burgdorferi s.l. | 33% | 6 | Lake Constance | Germany, Austria, Switzerland. | [19] |
Borrelia burgdorferi s.l. | 21% | 24 | Upper-Rhine Valley | Germany, Switzerland. | [19] | |
Borrelia burgdorferi s.l. | 15% | 54 | Rhine Valley-Main Area | Germany | [19] | |
Leptospira interrogans s.l. | 27% | 11 | Azores (São Miguel) | Portugal | [27] | |
Fungi | Dermatophytes | 9% | 57 | Near Berkshire, Cardiganshire, Devon, Essex, Hertfordshire, Leicestershire, London, Norfolk, Somerset, Surrey, and Yorkshire | UK | [36] |
Dermatophytes | 8% | 24 | Pas de Calais | France | [36] | |
Parasites | Giardia spp. | 33% | 6 | Southeastern North Island | New Zealand | [26] |
Viruses | Erinaceus coronaviruses | 80% | 5 | Bentivoglio, Budrio, and Conna | Italy | [40] |
Belerina virus | 39% | 147 | Merelbek, Maldere, and Opglabbe | Belgium | [41] |
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2023 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Jota Baptista, C.; Oliveira, P.A.; Gonzalo-Orden, J.M.; Seixas, F. Do Urban Hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus) Represent a Relevant Source of Zoonotic Diseases? Pathogens 2023, 12, 268. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12020268
Jota Baptista C, Oliveira PA, Gonzalo-Orden JM, Seixas F. Do Urban Hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus) Represent a Relevant Source of Zoonotic Diseases? Pathogens. 2023; 12(2):268. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12020268
Chicago/Turabian StyleJota Baptista, Catarina, Paula A. Oliveira, José M. Gonzalo-Orden, and Fernanda Seixas. 2023. "Do Urban Hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus) Represent a Relevant Source of Zoonotic Diseases?" Pathogens 12, no. 2: 268. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12020268
APA StyleJota Baptista, C., Oliveira, P. A., Gonzalo-Orden, J. M., & Seixas, F. (2023). Do Urban Hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus) Represent a Relevant Source of Zoonotic Diseases? Pathogens, 12(2), 268. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12020268