Pathogens

16 pages, 2325 KB

Open AccessArticle

An Update of Epidemiological Trends in Enzootic Bovine Leukosis in Italy and an Analysis of Risk Factors Associated with Infection Persistence

by Cecilia Righi, Carmen Iscaro, Stefano Petrini, Eleonora Scoccia, Silvia Pirani, Alessandro Fiorucci, Roberto Lomolino and Francesco Feliziani

Pathogens 2025, 14(11), 1088; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14111088 (registering DOI) - 24 Oct 2025

Abstract

In 2017, the Commission Implementing Decision (European Union [EU]) 2017/1910 officially declared Italy to be enzootic bovine leukosis (EBL)-free. The Commission Delegated Regulation (EU) 2020/689 laid criteria to maintain an official disease-free status. While some infection clusters persist in restricted areas, specific measures [...] Read more.

In 2017, the Commission Implementing Decision (European Union [EU]) 2017/1910 officially declared Italy to be enzootic bovine leukosis (EBL)-free. The Commission Delegated Regulation (EU) 2020/689 laid criteria to maintain an official disease-free status. While some infection clusters persist in restricted areas, specific measures are being implemented to eliminate pockets of viral persistence. This updated analysis of current data, concerning epidemiological trends of EBL in Italy from January 2022 to December 2024, aimed to analyze the status of infection clusters in terms of risk factors associated with bovine leukemia virus (BLV) seropositivity to evaluate the effectiveness of the eradication measures. Our findings highlighted an improvement in EBL eradication; however, the Latium region lags behind in terms of disease eradication while the situation in Apulia is being resolved. Campania, which has implemented restrictive and consistent health measures, has the lowest prevalence and incidence rates compared with previous years. Identifying and assessing risk factors that favor EBL persistence in infection clusters is essential as is implementing specific measures to eliminate such clusters, thereby enabling disease eradication and the adoption of targeted prevention strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Epidemiology of Infectious Diseases)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

13 pages, 829 KB

Open AccessArticle

Occurrence and Molecular Characteristics of Polerovirus BVG Isolates from Poland

by Katarzyna Trzmiel, Aleksandra Zarzyńska-Nowak and Beata Hasiów-Jaroszewska

Pathogens 2025, 14(11), 1087; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14111087 (registering DOI) - 24 Oct 2025

Abstract

Barley virus G (BVG), the species Polerovirus BVG, within the genus Polerovirus in the family Solemoviridae, represents a new threat to cereal crops in Poland. It was first identified in 2022–2023 using high-throughput sequencing in pooled barley samples exhibiting leaf yellowing and [...] Read more.

Barley virus G (BVG), the species Polerovirus BVG, within the genus Polerovirus in the family Solemoviridae, represents a new threat to cereal crops in Poland. It was first identified in 2022–2023 using high-throughput sequencing in pooled barley samples exhibiting leaf yellowing and stunting symptoms. The presence of BVG was subsequently confirmed by RT-PCR using diagnostic primers described in the literature. A nucleotide BLAST search of the NCBI database revealed sequence identity ranged from 97.8% to 100%. The final results demonstrated mixed infections involving BVG and luteovirus pashordei, formerly barley yellow dwarf virus—PAS (BYDV-PAS). In 2023–2024, BVG was detected in four additional locations across western, southern, south-eastern, and eastern Poland. The virus was found in co-infection with BYDV-PAS in barley and oat, and with mastrevirus hordei, formerly wheat dwarf virus (WDV) in wheat. Due to the mixed nature of BVG infections, a set of total RNA samples previously isolated from BYDV-infected plants was reanalyzed. RT-PCR results confirmed BVG/BYDV-PAS co-infections in samples collected in 2014–2015, 2018–2019, and 2020–2021. These findings indicate that BVG has been present in Poland for at least 10 years. Molecular characteristics were assessed based on the coat protein gene sequence. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Molecular Detection and Characterisation of Viral Pathogens: 2nd Edition)

15 pages, 2396 KB

Open AccessArticle

Description of Sarcocystis arvalis n. sp. from the Common Vole (Microtus arvalis) in Lithuania Using Morphological and Molecular Methods

by Dovilė Laisvūnė Bagdonaitė, Eglė Rudaitytė-Lukošienė, Vitalijus Stirkė, Linas Balčiauskas, Dalius Butkauskas and Petras Prakas

Pathogens 2025, 14(11), 1086; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14111086 (registering DOI) - 24 Oct 2025

Abstract

Records of Sarcocystis spp. diversity in rodents are relatively extensive; however, the increasing application of molecular approaches indicates that our current knowledge of these parasites remains incomplete. In the present study, morphological, genetic and phylogenetic data are provided on Sarcocystis arvalis n. sp. [...] Read more.

Records of Sarcocystis spp. diversity in rodents are relatively extensive; however, the increasing application of molecular approaches indicates that our current knowledge of these parasites remains incomplete. In the present study, morphological, genetic and phylogenetic data are provided on Sarcocystis arvalis n. sp. from the common vole (Microtus arvalis). Using light microscopy, the observed sarcocysts had a relatively thin (<1 μm) and smooth cyst wall. Via transmission electron microscopy, the sarcocyst wall thickness ranged from 0.7 to 1 μm, and the parasitophorous vacuolar membrane exhibited small knob-like blebs and was slightly wavy, type 1a. Based on 18S rRNA, 28S rRNA, cox1 and rpoB loci, S. arvalis n. sp. showed the highest similarity with Sarcocystis myodes from the bank vole (Clethronomys glareolus). According to the phylogenetic placement, S. arvalis n. sp. is the most closely related to Sarcocystis spp. with a rodent–mammal lifecycle. Morphologically, S. arvalis n. sp. forms sarcocysts that share a lot of similarities with those of S. myodes, Sarcocystis ratti and Sarcocystis cernae and molecular analysis is necessary for accurate species identification. Based on the abundance of the hosts and the proportion of voles in their diet, the most likely definitive hosts of S. arvalis n. sp. are red foxes, stone martens, least weasels, and domestic cats. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

28 pages, 1029 KB

Open AccessReview

Unveiling the Mechanisms of Bacterial Resistance and Countermeasures

by Yuqing Xie, Hao Lu, Yichen Liu, Gaowei Hu, Siqi Lian, Jiaqi Liu, Shengmei Pang, Guoqiang Zhu and Xueyan Ding

Pathogens 2025, 14(11), 1085; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14111085 (registering DOI) - 24 Oct 2025

Abstract

The discovery and clinical deployment of antibiotics marked a paradigm shift in combating bacterial infections, profoundly benefiting human medicine, veterinary health, and agricultural productivity. However, pervasive overuse in both the clinical and livestock sectors has precipitated an alarming acceleration of antimicrobial resistance, now [...] Read more.

The discovery and clinical deployment of antibiotics marked a paradigm shift in combating bacterial infections, profoundly benefiting human medicine, veterinary health, and agricultural productivity. However, pervasive overuse in both the clinical and livestock sectors has precipitated an alarming acceleration of antimicrobial resistance, now recognized as a critical global health threat. Compounding this crisis, livestock-associated resistant pathogens persistently colonize the food production continuum, enabling zoonotic transmission through animal-derived products and endangering public health, food safety, and human survival. This review delineates current insights into bacterial resistance mechanisms and evaluates innovative countermeasures, aiming to inform future antimicrobial development and resistance containment strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Bacterial Pathogens)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

25 pages, 5048 KB

Open AccessReview

Epidemiology, Virology, and Control of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza in Kazakhstan

by Zhandarbek Bekshin, Aliya Temirbekova, Zhadyrassyn Nurbekova, Nurgul Amirkhanova, Akbota Satenova, Albert Askarov, Kunsulu Zakarya, Yergali Abduraimov and Aralbek Rsaliyev

Pathogens 2025, 14(11), 1084; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14111084 (registering DOI) - 24 Oct 2025

Abstract

This review analyzed the epidemiology and impact of HPAI (H5N1 and H5N8) in migratory birds and poultry in Kazakhstan, with a special focus on outbreaks from 2005 to 2024. A comprehensive bibliographic analysis of publications on avian influenza in Kazakhstan over the past [...] Read more.

This review analyzed the epidemiology and impact of HPAI (H5N1 and H5N8) in migratory birds and poultry in Kazakhstan, with a special focus on outbreaks from 2005 to 2024. A comprehensive bibliographic analysis of publications on avian influenza in Kazakhstan over the past 20 years was performed. This review mainly included epidemiological studies of virus detections in wild and poultry in Kazakhstan. Migratory wild birds, in particular, played a key role in the spread of the virus. An analysis of the migration chronology of HPAIV-carrying birds prior to their entry into Kazakhstan was conducted, as well as a comparative analysis of seasonal and water landscape characteristics in previous habitats. The complexity and risks associated with the virus, together with the limited number of current scientific studies in Kazakhstan, require further research to reduce its impact on animals and the ecosystem as a whole. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging and Re-Emerging Avian Influenza Viruses in Wildlife)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

20 pages, 1681 KB

Open AccessArticle

Invasive Meningococcal Disease—Changes in Epidemiologic Trends and Outcome over 24 Years in a Tertiary Care Hospital from Romania

by Constanța-Angelica Vișan, Miruna Norocea, Mădălina-Elena Neniu, Anuța Bilașco, Magdalena Vasile, Diana-Elena Vișan, Andreea Ioana Tudor, Anca Cristina Drăgănescu and Ana Maria Tudor

Pathogens 2025, 14(11), 1083; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14111083 (registering DOI) - 24 Oct 2025

Abstract

Introduction: Despite the advances in its prevention, invasive meningococcal disease (IMD) remains a serious health problem worldwide due to its high morbidity and mortality, including in Romania, with 22% mortality rate. The objectives were to describe the trends of IMD cases admitted to [...] Read more.

Introduction: Despite the advances in its prevention, invasive meningococcal disease (IMD) remains a serious health problem worldwide due to its high morbidity and mortality, including in Romania, with 22% mortality rate. The objectives were to describe the trends of IMD cases admitted to a tertiary care hospital in Romania, over 24 years, and the case fatality rate (CFR) by age, year of admission, and Neisseria meningitidis serogroups. Materials and Methods: A retrospective study was conducted in IMD patients admitted to the National Institute for Infectious Diseases “Prof. Dr. Matei Bals”, Bucharest, Romania, between 2001 and 2024. Results: A total of 256 IMD patients were admitted, 171 under fourteen years, out of which 75 were infants. Most cases were reported before 2008. The case distribution showed 90 patients (35%) with meningitis, 84 (32%) with meningococcaemia, and 82 (32%) with an association of both. Serogroup B was the most frequently and steadily found (58 cases). The overall CFR was 12%. CFR was highest in infants younger than 6 months (19%) and meningococcaemia cases (29%). Conclusions: In our study, IDM had the highest frequency and CFR in infants and meningococcaemia cases. The trends showed a decline in cases after 2008. Serogroup B was the most prevalent and stable strain over 24 years. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Bacterial Pathogens)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

17 pages, 1286 KB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Canine Leishmaniasis in Europe Over the Last Decade: A Review of Geographic Trends and Epidemiological Data

by Anamaria Plesko, Tiana Florea, Mirela Imre, Diana Hoffman, Ioan Cristian Dreghiciu, Alexandra Pocinoc, Florica Morariu, Ana-Maria Marin, Narcisa Mederle, Gheorghe Darabus, Ion Oprescu, Marius Stelian Ilie and Sorin Morariu

Pathogens 2025, 14(11), 1082; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14111082 - 23 Oct 2025

Abstract

Canine leishmaniasis is an emerging threat in Europe shaped by ecological, climatic, and socio-economic factors. This systematic review examines the prevalence of Leishmania spp. infection in dogs, based on information collected from studies published between 2015 and 2024 across 14 European countries. Available [...] Read more.

Canine leishmaniasis is an emerging threat in Europe shaped by ecological, climatic, and socio-economic factors. This systematic review examines the prevalence of Leishmania spp. infection in dogs, based on information collected from studies published between 2015 and 2024 across 14 European countries. Available data was compiled and analyzed following PRISMA guidelines, revealing pronounced geographical variability. Prevalence was highest in southern European countries such as Portugal, Italy, and Greece, while substantially lower rates were reported in Central and Northern Europe. Despite differences in diagnostic approaches and surveillance intensity across countries, overall patterns point to endemic transmission in southern regions and a growing epidemiological risk in areas traditionally considered non-endemic. These findings underscore the need for harmonized diagnostic protocols and a strengthened surveillance network, consistent with the One Health framework, to enable effective responses to climate change and the shifting landscape of vector-borne diseases in Europe. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Leishmania spp. and Leishmaniasis)

21 pages, 542 KB

Open AccessArticle

Cross-Sectional Study on Zoonotic Bacteria Carriage by Small Ruminants from Portugal’s Central Region

by Maria Aires Pereira, Alexandra Lameira Baptista, Rita Cruz, Fernando Esteves, Ana Amaro, João R. Mesquita, Elizabete Almeida, Joana Braguez, Madalena Malva and Alda F. A. Pires

Pathogens 2025, 14(11), 1081; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14111081 - 23 Oct 2025

Abstract

Zoonotic bacteria, namely Campylobacter spp., Escherichia coli, Salmonella spp. and Staphylococcus aureus, are commonly implicated in human infections and can be transmitted from animals to humans through direct contact, the environment or the food chain. The emergence of antimicrobial resistance in [...] Read more.

Zoonotic bacteria, namely Campylobacter spp., Escherichia coli, Salmonella spp. and Staphylococcus aureus, are commonly implicated in human infections and can be transmitted from animals to humans through direct contact, the environment or the food chain. The emergence of antimicrobial resistance in these zoonotic bacteria, namely extended spectrum β-lactamases (ESBLs)-producing strains of E. coli and methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA), has become a public health concern worldwide. This study aimed to determine the prevalence of fecal carriage of Campylobacter spp., Salmonella spp. and ESBL-producing strains of E. coli, as well as nasal carriage of MRSA, and to identify risk factors associated with the presence of these zoonotic bacteria in small ruminants from Portugal’s Central Region. A total of 732 animals, of which 432 sheep and 300 goats from 122 farms were sampled. Zoonotic enteric bacteria were isolated from individual fecal samples, while MRSA were isolated from pooled nasal swabs collected from each farm. Bacteria were isolated according to standard microbiological methods. The overall prevalence of Campylobacter spp. and Salmonella spp. at the animal level was 15.6% and 8.3%, respectively, with significantly higher prevalence in sheep (19.0% and 12.7%) compared to goat (10.7% and 2.0%). Presumptive ESBL-producing strains of E. coli was isolated from 5.2% of the animals. Presumptive MRSA was isolated from 5.7% of the farms. A cluster analysis was performed to identify farm clusters with similar characteristics based on the isolation of Campylobacter spp., Salmonella spp., presumptive ESBL-producing E. coli, and presumptive MRSA. Farms were grouped into three clusters: “Resistant”, “Campylobacter” and “Salmonella”. The likelihood of farms belonging to “Campylobacter” and “Salmonella” clusters in comparison to “Resistant” cluster was associated with animal species, farm location, and farmer’ practices regarding antibiotic use. This study reinforces the role of small ruminants as asymptomatic reservoirs of Campylobacter spp., Salmonella spp., E. coli and S. aureus and confirms, for the first time, their role as carriers of presumptive antibiotic-resistant zoonotic bacteria in Portugal’s Central Region. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Bacterial Pathogens)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

17 pages, 1484 KB

Open AccessArticle

Education and Economic Factors Shape Clusters of Biosecurity Beliefs and Practices: Insights from an Exploratory Survey of Midwest U.S. Swine Producers

by Benti D. Gelalcha, Maurine C. Chepkwony, Cesar A. Corzo, Colin Yoder, Andres Perez, Maria Sol Perez Aguirreburualde, Dennis N. Makau and Michael W. Mahero

Pathogens 2025, 14(11), 1080; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14111080 - 23 Oct 2025

Abstract

Despite existing biosecurity frameworks, there is limited empirical evidence on how US swine producers’ beliefs, behaviors, and risk perceptions influence enhanced biosecurity implementation. We conducted an online survey among US swine producers to understand their biosecurity beliefs, behaviors, and practices. We used descriptive, [...] Read more.

Despite existing biosecurity frameworks, there is limited empirical evidence on how US swine producers’ beliefs, behaviors, and risk perceptions influence enhanced biosecurity implementation. We conducted an online survey among US swine producers to understand their biosecurity beliefs, behaviors, and practices. We used descriptive, unsupervised machine learning, and Factor Analysis for Mixed Data (FAMD). Of fifty-four respondents, 48.1% reported implementing some biosecurity measures, and 72.2% valued having enhanced biosecurity protocols. Majority (53.7%) considered their veterinarian’s biosecurity opinion most important, and 37% were not concerned about African swine fever. Almost all (90.7%) felt confident they could contain an outbreak on their farms. However, none practiced enhanced biosecurity. The cluster analysis identified four distinct producer profiles (K = 4). Cluster A had young, inexperienced producers operating breeding facilities, with moderate biosecurity adoption. Cluster B included young, small-farm producers with variable biosecurity practices and low mortality rates. Cluster C comprised farms with moderate experience, higher mortality rates, and the lowest biosecurity adoption. Cluster D was composed of older, experienced, educated producers with the highest biosecurity standards and lowest mortality rates. FAMD revealed clustering along human capital and resource availability dimensions. Regular biosecurity assessments, tailored recommendations, and training would improve biosecurity in the swine industry. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

10 pages, 640 KB

Open AccessOpinion

Animal Rabies in Kazakhstan: Stable Endemicity, Surveillance Pitfalls, and Priority Actions

by Sarsenbay K. Abdrakhmanov, Asem Zh. Abenova, Aizada A. Mukhanbetkaliyeva, Fedor I. Korennoy and Andres M. Perez

Pathogens 2025, 14(11), 1079; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14111079 (registering DOI) - 23 Oct 2025

Abstract

Rabies is endemic in Kazakhstan, with the primary reservoirs being wild canids, such as foxes and dogs, maintaining distinct sylvatic and urban cycles. This paper outlines three high-return priorities for rabies control in the country, informed by the epidemiological patterns of the disease, [...] Read more.

Rabies is endemic in Kazakhstan, with the primary reservoirs being wild canids, such as foxes and dogs, maintaining distinct sylvatic and urban cycles. This paper outlines three high-return priorities for rabies control in the country, informed by the epidemiological patterns of the disease, the national regulatory framework (Order No. 7-1/587), and evidence on the knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAP) of the Kazakh population. The three priorities are (a) transition into a One Health, real-time surveillance system featuring standardized digital reporting and GIS-guided interventions; (b) implementation of biannual oral rabies vaccination (ORV) of foxes in high-risk districts, incorporating mandatory quality assurance (via tetracycline biomarkers and/or serology) aligned with EU/EFSA standards; and (c) adopt an urban strategy focused on dogs to increase vaccination coverage and reduce delays in human post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP). These measures align with the WOAH Terrestrial Code and the “Zero by 30” roadmap, leveraging existing national assets like risk maps and laboratory capacity, such as dFAT, RT-PCR, and sequencing. Kazakhstan’s predictable rabies pattern allows for targeting district-level strategies and transparent measurement of risk reduction, contingent on enforcing standardized reporting and rigorous quality assurance programs. The opinions introduced in this paper are based on the scientific evidence collected in Kazakhstan over the last decade and summarize the need for urgent actions to promote rabies control in the country. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Epidemiology of Infectious Diseases)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

16 pages, 2071 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Impact of Body Mass Index on Latent Tuberculosis Infection: Combined Assessment in People Living with HIV

by Jingxian Ning, Peng Lu, Yuchen Pan, Yilin Lian, Yu Zhang, Wenxin Jiang, Leonardo Martinez, Limei Zhu and Qiao Liu

Pathogens 2025, 14(11), 1078; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14111078 - 23 Oct 2025

Abstract

Background: Tuberculosis (TB) is a leading cause of death among people living with HIV (PLHIV). While body mass index (BMI) affects TB risk, its association with latent tuberculosis infection (LTBI) in PLHIV is unclear. High-transmission settings, such as prisons, may further increase LTBI [...] Read more.

Background: Tuberculosis (TB) is a leading cause of death among people living with HIV (PLHIV). While body mass index (BMI) affects TB risk, its association with latent tuberculosis infection (LTBI) in PLHIV is unclear. High-transmission settings, such as prisons, may further increase LTBI risk, yet this relationship has not been studied across both prison and community populations of PLHIV. Methods: We conducted a dual cross-sectional study of PLHIV in Jiangsu Province, China, recruiting participants from a prison hospital in 2021 and community healthcare facilities from July to November 2023. BMI was calculated from measured height and weight. LTBI was identified by a positive ESAT6-CFP10 (EC) skin test or the QuantiFERON-TB Gold In-Tube (QFT-GIT) assay. Logistic regression and generalized additive models (GAMs) assessed the association between BMI and LTBI, adjusting for demographic, clinical, and behavioral confounders. Results: A total of 1799 PLHIV were included in the analysis, of whom 343 (19.07%) were recruited from prison settings and 1456 (80.93%) from community-based screening. The overall prevalence of LTBI was 13.79% (n = 248). Obesity (BMI ≥ 28 kg/m²) was linked to a significantly lower risk of LTBI (adjusted OR = 0.47, 95% CI: 0.23–0.95, p = 0.036), particularly when identified by EC testing (adjusted OR = 0.13, 95% CI: 0.03–0.54, p = 0.005). The BMI–LTBI association followed a nonlinear “U-shaped” pattern, with the lowest prevalence in individuals who were obese. Among those with CD4+ T cell counts < 500 cells/μL, the inverse association between obesity and LTBI was even more marked (adjusted OR = 0.20, 95% CI: 0.05–0.83, p = 0.027). Conclusion: In summary, obesity is significantly associated with a lower risk of LTBI among PLHIV, with an approximate 54% risk reduction. This inverse relationship was most pronounced when using the EC skin test. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

19 pages, 2980 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Selection for Low and High Varroa destructor Population Growth Rates on the Honey Bee Transcriptome

by Alvaro De la Mora, Paul H. Goodwin, Tatiana Petukhova and Ernesto Guzman-Novoa

Pathogens 2025, 14(11), 1077; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14111077 - 22 Oct 2025

Abstract

Varroa destructor is a major health problem for honey bees (Apis mellifera). Selective breeding of Varroa-resistant bees is a suitable long-term solution to Varroa parasitism. After three generations of selecting honey bees for lower (resistant) and higher (susceptible) V. destructor [...] Read more.

Varroa destructor is a major health problem for honey bees (Apis mellifera). Selective breeding of Varroa-resistant bees is a suitable long-term solution to Varroa parasitism. After three generations of selecting honey bees for lower (resistant) and higher (susceptible) V. destructor population growth (LVG and HVG, respectively), LVG bees showed increased behavioral, cellular, and humoral immunity against Varroa. To further analyze resistance, the transcriptomes of both bee genotypes were examined, revealing that parasitized LVG bees had fewer differentially expressed genes (DEGs) than parasitized HVG bees, indicating a reduced impact by Varroa with greater resistance. Annotations of the altered DEGs showed that both genotypes were affected with an increased demand for energy, protein, and repair during parasitism. However, there were also DEGs in LVG bees, possibly related to resistance, such as up-regulation of odorant binding protein genes and down-regulation of the corazonin receptor gene, whereas DEGs in the HVG bees may be more related to stress, such as up-regulation of ATP synthase and down-regulation of the transcription factor dorsal. Overall, this work shows that selection for LVG and HVG bees resulted in genotypes with widespread differences in gene expression during Varroa parasitism, which may be related to resistance and susceptibility. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Surveillance, Detection and Control of Infectious Diseases of Bees)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

19 pages, 3027 KB

Open AccessArticle

An ApiAP2 Family Transcriptional Factor PfAP2-06B Regulates Erythrocyte Invasion Indirectly in Plasmodium falciparum

by Qiyang Shi, Kai Wan, Yifei Gong, Jiayao Pang, Yaobao Liu, Jianxia Tang, Qingfeng Zhang, Jun Cao and Li Shen

Pathogens 2025, 14(11), 1076; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14111076 - 22 Oct 2025

Abstract

Obligate intracellular parasites must efficiently invade host cells to complete their life cycle and facilitate transmission. For the malaria-causing parasite Plasmodium falciparum, the invasion of an erythrocyte is a critical process, and thereby a key target for intervention strategies. In this study, [...] Read more.

Obligate intracellular parasites must efficiently invade host cells to complete their life cycle and facilitate transmission. For the malaria-causing parasite Plasmodium falciparum, the invasion of an erythrocyte is a critical process, and thereby a key target for intervention strategies. In this study, we investigate the role of the ApiAP2 family transcription factor PfAP2-06B (PF3D7_0613800) in the intraerythrocytic developmental cycle of P. falciparum and focus on its regulation of genes involved in erythrocyte invasion. Conditional knockdown of PfAP2-06B resulted in a defect in asexual growth and impaired erythrocyte invasion. Bulk RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) analysis revealed that PfAP2-06B modulates the expression of invasion-related genes during the schizont stage. Single-cell RNA sequencing indicated that PfAP2-06B influences invasion gene expression and contributes to stochastic variations in expression of cell-to-cell genes. These results underscore the critical function of PfAP2-06B in the process of erythrocyte invasion and suggest its potential as a target for novel malaria control strategies. Importance: Understanding gene regulation in Plasmodium falciparum is essential for uncovering mechanisms of parasite development and pathogenicity. The research underscores the pivotal role of PfAP2-06B in regulating critical aspects of Plasmodium intraerythrocytic development and host cell invasion, demonstrating that PfAP2-06B plays a key role in orchestrating stage-specific gene expression. These findings provide new insights into the transcriptional networks of P. falciparum and highlight PfAP2-06B as a potential target for therapeutic intervention. This work advances our understanding of malaria pathogenesis and developing effective interventions. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

9 pages, 688 KB

Open AccessArticle

Comparing the Performance of McMaster, FLOTAC and Mini-FLOTAC Techniques in the Diagnosis of Strongylid Infections in Two Horse Populations in Portugal

by Marta Varandas, João Lozano, Ricardo Agrícola, Lídia Gomes, Teresa Rosa, Mariana Magalhães, Luís Lamas, Laura Rinaldi, Manuela Oliveira, Adolfo Paz-Silva and Luís Madeira de Carvalho

Pathogens 2025, 14(11), 1075; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14111075 - 22 Oct 2025

Abstract

The diagnosis of gastrointestinal (GI) strongyle infections in equids is still mainly performed using quantitative coprological techniques, like the McMaster (McM), but more sensitive and precise techniques, like FLOTAC (FL) and Mini-FLOTAC (MF), have been proposed over the past 20 years. The present [...] Read more.

The diagnosis of gastrointestinal (GI) strongyle infections in equids is still mainly performed using quantitative coprological techniques, like the McMaster (McM), but more sensitive and precise techniques, like FLOTAC (FL) and Mini-FLOTAC (MF), have been proposed over the past 20 years. The present study aimed to compare the analytical performance of these three methods in the diagnosis of strongyle infections in horses. Between October 2023 and June 2024, 32 fecal samples were processed using the McM, FL and MF techniques to identify strongyles’ eggs, estimate their shedding (eggs per gram of feces, EPG), standard errors, sensitivities, precisions, and perform Spearman’s correlation and Cohen’s kappa analyses. The McM detected a higher shedding (584 ± 179 EPG), in comparison with FL and MF, with both these differences being statistically significant (p < 0.001); FL achieved the highest precision (72%), which differed significantly from McM (p = 0.03). All techniques were positively (r_s = 0.92–0.96) and significantly (p < 0.001) correlated and shared substantial (k = 0.67–0.76) and significant (p < 0.001) agreement. The MF achieved the highest diagnostic sensitivity (93%), followed by FL (89%) and McM (85%), although not significantly (p = 0.90). These results suggest the usefulness of implementing FL or MF methods in equine medicine for precise and, in the latter case, quick parasitological diagnosis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Parasitic Diseases in Livestock: Advances in Diagnostics, Understanding and Control)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

14 pages, 4253 KB

Open AccessArticle

Immunopathological Changes Caused by Oesophagostomum radiatum in Calves: Insights into Host–Parasite Interactions

by Cesar Cristiano Bassetto, Ana Cláudia Alexandre de Albuquerque, José Gabriel Gonçalves Lins, Guilherme Fernandes Dias Canalli, Anandra Kauára dos Santos Gomes and Alessandro Francisco Talamini Amarante

Pathogens 2025, 14(11), 1074; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14111074 - 22 Oct 2025

Abstract

The intensity and prevalence of different gastrointestinal nematode species vary across regions worldwide. Oesophagostomum radiatum commonly shows a high occurrence in young cattle. O. radiatum causes anaemia, hypoproteinaemia, and immunopathological changes in the large intestine wall, impairing calves’ body weight gain. This study [...] Read more.

The intensity and prevalence of different gastrointestinal nematode species vary across regions worldwide. Oesophagostomum radiatum commonly shows a high occurrence in young cattle. O. radiatum causes anaemia, hypoproteinaemia, and immunopathological changes in the large intestine wall, impairing calves’ body weight gain. This study aimed to assess the impact of natural O. radiatum infection on haematological parameters and immune responses in 23 Nellore calves, considering sex-based differences. Assessments included Oesophagostomum egg count (EPG), worm count, packed cell volume (PCV), total plasma protein, histopathological and immunohistochemistry analyses. A large number of parasites attached to the colon mucosa were observed, along with massive nodule formation and haemorrhagic lesions, mainly within a 20–30 cm-long segment adjacent to the nodules. The maximum mean egg shedding was approximately 165 EPG for males and 173 EPG for female calves; however, males presented a significantly higher worm count (969 ± 200.5) than females (460 ± 99.5). There were significant positive correlations between the total O. radiatum worm count and O. radiatum EPG for both female and male calves. Significant negative correlations were observed between the total O. radiatum worm count and PCV in female calves. Our results demonstrated that natural O. radiatum infection in Nellore calves induced marked immunopathological alterations, including chronic inflammatory responses that impaired intestinal function. Sex-related differences suggested that female calves may develop more effective tissue responses. These findings emphasise the economic impact of subclinical infections and reinforce the importance of control strategies to minimise productivity losses in cattle. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Parasitic Diseases in Livestock: Advances in Diagnostics, Understanding and Control)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

14 pages, 265 KB

Open AccessArticle

Epidemiologic Characteristics of 1.4 Million Multiplex PCR Tests for 12 Urogenital and Sexually Transmitted Infection Pathogens in Korea (2021–2024)

by Soyoun Shin

Pathogens 2025, 14(11), 1073; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14111073 - 22 Oct 2025

Abstract

Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) remain a global health concern, but large-scale multiplex PCR surveillance data are limited. This study aimed to characterize sex- and age-specific distributions, temporal patterns, and co-infection dynamics of 12 urogenital and sexually transmitted infection (STI) pathogens in Korea. We [...] Read more.

Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) remain a global health concern, but large-scale multiplex PCR surveillance data are limited. This study aimed to characterize sex- and age-specific distributions, temporal patterns, and co-infection dynamics of 12 urogenital and sexually transmitted infection (STI) pathogens in Korea. We retrospectively analyzed 1,399,431 multiplex PCR test records (902,713 females, 496,718 males) collected nationwide between 2021 and 2024. Positivity rates were stratified by sex, age, month, season, and year. Co-infection coverage and inter-pathogen correlations were assessed; φ coefficients ≥0.20 were considered relevant. Overall, 67.23% of tests were positive for at least one pathogen. Annually, positivity rates for most pathogens, including the six traditional STIs (N. gonorrhoeae, C. trachomatis, M. genitalium, T. vaginalis, T. pallidum, and HSV II), showed a significant decline over the four-year period (p < 0.0001). Females had higher positivity than males (77.73% vs. 48.14%, p < 0.0001), largely driven by G. vaginalis (64.70%), U. parvum (41.37%), and C. albicans (18.07%), whereas traditional STIs, except T. vaginalis and HSV II, were more frequent in males (p < 0.0001). Adolescents and young adults carried the highest burden of traditional STIs such as C. trachomatis and N. gonorrhoeae (p < 0.0001). In females, C. albicans decreased with age (32.17% in 10s to 6.45% in 80s) but increased annually (p = 0.0058), while HSV II positivity significantly declined in males over time (p = 0.0038). No seasonal variation was observed (p > 0.90). Co-infections were predominantly commensal-driven, with U. parvum/G. vaginalis being the most frequent pair in females, and U. urealyticum/G. vaginalis being frequent in males (8.24% in 10s, 10.48% in 20s). Traditional STI co-infections were rare but concentrated in adolescents, with C. trachomatis/N. gonorrhoeae reaching 4.25% in males. Correlation analysis confirmed strong associations among commensals (φ = 0.24–0.35) and moderate correlations involving C. trachomatis in youth (φ = 0.25–0.28), with G. vaginalis consistently identified as the central hub organism across all age groups. This nationwide four-year analysis highlights declining prevalence of traditional STIs, sex-specific STI patterns, distinct age-specific distributions, and commensal-driven co-infection patterns. The findings underscore the need for age- and sex-tailored screening strategies, particularly in adolescents, young adults, and women of reproductive age, and highlight the value of multiplex PCR for STI surveillance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers on the Epidemiology of Infectious Diseases)

16 pages, 6552 KB

Open AccessArticle

Antibacterial Electrophoretically Loaded Titania Nanotubes on Titanium Alloy Implants Enhance Osseointegration

by Julia Fischer, Deborah J. Hall, Meghan M. Moran, Adrienn Markovics, Peter H. Pennekamp, John L. Hamilton and Markus A. Wimmer

Pathogens 2025, 14(11), 1072; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14111072 - 22 Oct 2025

Abstract

Primary hip and knee arthroplasties are common surgeries in the U.S., with periprosthetic joint infection (PJI) being the leading cause of implant revision. Systemic antibiotics often fail to achieve sufficient local concentrations, driving interest in localized drug delivery. Titanium (Ti) implants modified with [...] Read more.

Primary hip and knee arthroplasties are common surgeries in the U.S., with periprosthetic joint infection (PJI) being the leading cause of implant revision. Systemic antibiotics often fail to achieve sufficient local concentrations, driving interest in localized drug delivery. Titanium (Ti) implants modified with titania nanotubes (TNTs) provide an increased surface area for drug loading and controlled release. Previous studies have shown that gentamicin-loaded TNTs inhibit Staphylococcus aureus growth in vitro without compromising osteoblast viability. This study investigated the effect of gentamicin–chitosan (GC)-coated TNT implants in a murine model, hypothesizing a positive impact on osseointegration. Titanium alloy (Ti6Al4V) wires were anodized to form TNTs and then coated with gentamicin–chitosan (GC) via electrophoretic deposition. Implants (Bare, TNT, TNT+GC; n = 30) were inserted bilaterally into femoral canals of C57BL/6J mice. After > 1 month, osseointegration was assessed by histological point counting, scanning electron microscopy (SEM)-based areal analysis, and mechanical pull-out testing. ANOVA was used to identify differences between groups, and linear regression was applied to account for harvest time, bone contact area, and anatomical section. Bone area fraction (BAF) around the implant measured by the SEM–areal method was significantly higher around TNT+GC (18.4% ± 1.1) and TNT (16.5% ± 1.4) versus Bare (9.0% ± 2.3) (p < 0.0028) implants. The maximum fixation strength was higher for TNT (0.878 ± 0.175 N/mm²) and TNT+GC (0.853 ± 0.215N/mm²) when compared to bare implants 0.316 ± 0.082 N/mm²) (p = 0.048 and p = 0.050, respectively). No significant differences appeared between TNT and TNT+GC. These findings indicate that GC coatings on TNT implants do impair osseointegration and may even enhance bone–implant integration. Such coatings may therefore provide dual benefits, offering antibacterial protection while improving bone fixation, making them a promising strategy for PJI prevention. Further long-term studies are needed to confirm durability and clinical translation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Infections and Bone Damage)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

18 pages, 10832 KB

Open AccessArticle

LINC1467 Activates the IPO8–p65 Axis to Restrict Hand, Foot, and Mouth Disease Virus Replication

by Xiaokui Zhang, Jinwei Li, Li Ding, Jihong Zhang, Fan Yang, Yonghan Luo and Wei Chen

Pathogens 2025, 14(10), 1071; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14101071 - 21 Oct 2025

Abstract

Hand–foot–mouth disease (HFMD), primarily caused by human enteroviruses (EVs), poses a public health challenge, particularly among infants, due to a lack of effective therapies. Elucidating the molecular interplay between EVs and the host immune response is crucial for developing antiviral treatments. Recent studies [...] Read more.

Hand–foot–mouth disease (HFMD), primarily caused by human enteroviruses (EVs), poses a public health challenge, particularly among infants, due to a lack of effective therapies. Elucidating the molecular interplay between EVs and the host immune response is crucial for developing antiviral treatments. Recent studies have highlighted the significance of long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) in regulating host–pathogen interactions; however, the mechanisms of lncRNAs in EV infection remain poorly unexplored. Here, we identified a highly inducible nuclear lncRNA, LINC1467, that is upregulated in response to HFMD-related EV infection. Functional analyses revealed that LINC1467 suppresses viral replication. Mechanistically, LINC1467 interacts with nuclear import receptor Importin 8 (IPO8) to form the LINC1467/IPO8/p65 complex, facilitating the phosphorylation and nuclear translocation of p65, thus promoting the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines and activating the NF-κB pathway. The antiviral function of LINC1467 was further validated in a mouse model of viral infection. These findings uncover a novel lncRNA-mediated regulatory mechanism in the innate immune response and highlight LINC1467 as a promising target for future antiviral strategies against HFMD-related EVs. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

14 pages, 1991 KB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Incubation Time for Viability Assessment of Ascaris suum Eggs—Attempts to Optimise the Parasitological Examination

by Radosław Badziak, Jolanta Zdybel, Zbigniew Osiński, Ewa Bilska-Zając, Jacek Karamon, Jacek Sroka, Marta Skubida, Angelina Wójcik-Fatla and Tomasz Cencek

Pathogens 2025, 14(10), 1070; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14101070 - 21 Oct 2025

Abstract

The aim of this study was to determine the optimal incubation time for accurate assessment of Ascaris suum eggs viability, an important step in improving parasitological diagnostics. The experiment used A. suum eggs collected from three sources: adult roundworms uteri (U), pig faeces [...] Read more.

The aim of this study was to determine the optimal incubation time for accurate assessment of Ascaris suum eggs viability, an important step in improving parasitological diagnostics. The experiment used A. suum eggs collected from three sources: adult roundworms uteri (U), pig faeces (F) and sewage sludge (S), then incubated at 27 °C and monitored weekly. The number of Petri dishes used for eggs observations for each source was 12 (100 eggs were observed on each Petri dish). Eggs were classified as dead (with clear deformations), viable (with motile larvae) or of uncertain viability (retaining structural integrity but undeveloped). The results showed that eggs from group U had the highest viability (96%) and developed larvae within 3 weeks. In contrast, group F (52% viability) and S (3% viability) showed delayed development, requiring up to 8–12 weeks for a conclusive viability assessment. The differences in the percentage of QE, LE, and DEwere generally statistically significant, except in the case of eggs from sewage sludge in the fourth week of incubation. These results indicate significant differences in egg viability depending on the sample source and emphasise the need for longer incubation times, particularly for environmental samples such as sewage sludge. The study also highlights the limitations of single time point assessments based solely on egg structure, which can lead to misclassification. In conclusion, prolonged incubation improves diagnostic accuracy by allowing a clearer distinction between viable and non-viable eggs, especially in samples with initially uncertain viability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Parasitic Pathogens)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

Journal Description

Pathogens

Latest Articles

Journal Menu

Journal Browser

Highly Accessed Articles

Latest Books

E-Mail Alert

News

Topics

Conferences

Special Issues

Topical Collections

Further Information

Guidelines

MDPI Initiatives

Follow MDPI