Occurrence and Characterization of Salmonella Isolated from Table Egg Layer Farming Environments in Western Australia and Insights into Biosecurity and Egg Handling Practices
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Results
2.1. The Occurrence of Salmonella in the Layer Farm Environments
2.2. Diversity of Salmonella Serovars and Sequence Types
2.3. Production Management, Biosecurity, and Egg Handling Practices
3. Discussion
3.1. The First Insight on the Status of Salmonella in Egg Businesses in WA
3.2. Salmonella Recovery from Environmental Samples
3.3. Diversity of Salmonella Subtypes Recovered from Environmental Samples
3.4. Biosecurity and Production Practices—Points of Attention
4. Materials and Methods
4.1. Recruitment of Egg Businesses
4.2. Environmental Sampling
4.3. Isolation, Identification, and Serotyping of Salmonella
4.4. MLST of S. Typhimurium Isolates
4.5. Biosecurity and Production Practices Questionnaire
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Production System | Egg Business | No. of Birds in Each Farm | No. of +ve Flocks/No. of Sampled Flocks (%) | No. of +ve Samples/No. of Collected Samples (%) | Flock Environment Samples (No. Positive/No. Tested) | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Pooled Faecal Sample | Boot Swab—Inside | Boot Swab—Outside | Dust | Feed—Inside Shed | Feed—Outside Shed/Silo | Water—Inside Shed | |||||
Barn-laid | A | 27,000 | 4/5 | 8/49 (16.3) | — | 2/10 | 2/4 | 3/10 | 1/10 | 0/5 | 0/10 |
B | 32,000 | 2/2 | 11/24 (45.8) | 3/6 | 3/4 | — | 4/4 | 1/4 | 0/2 | 0/4 | |
C * | 40,000 | 0/2 | 0/18 (0.0) | — | 0/4 | — | 0/4 | 0/4 | 0/2 | 0/4 | |
E | 12,000 | 6/6 | 23/63 (36.5) | 15/27 | — | 2/6 | 6/12 | 0/6 | 0/6 | 0/6 | |
Overall barn-laid | 12/15 (80.0) | 42/154 (27.2) | 18/33 (54.5) | 5/18 (27.7) | 4/10 (40.0) | 13/30 (43.3) | 2/24 (8.3) | 0/15 (—) | 0/24 (—) | ||
Free-range | C * | 40,000 | 2/2 | 4/20 (20.0) | — | 2/4 | 1/2 | 1/4 | 0/4 | 0/2 | 0/4 |
D | 14,200 | 1/1 | 3/11 (27.2) | — | 0/2 | 1/2 | 2/2 | 0/2 | 0/1 | 0/2 | |
F | 20,000 | 5/5 | 29/50 (58.0) | — | 5/10 | 3/5 | 8/10 | 8/10 | 5/5 | 0/10 | |
G | 15,000 | 3/3 | 15/30 (50.0) | — | 5/6 | 0/3 | 4/6 | 4/6 | 2/3 | 0/6 | |
Overall free-range | 11/11 (100.0) | 51/111 (45.9) | — | 12/22 (54.5) | 5/12 (41.6) | 15/22 (68.1) | 12/24 (50.0) | 7/11 (63.6) | 0/22 (—) | ||
Totals | 23/26 (88.4) | 93/265 (35.0) | 18/33 (54.5) | 17/40 (42.5) | 9/22 (40.9) | 28/52 (53.8) | 14/46 (30.4) | 7/26 (26.9) | 0/46 (—) |
Production System | Egg Business | No. of +ve Flocks/No. of Sampled Flocks (%) | Serovar Diversity Pattern in Each Visited Egg Business | No. Flocks With the Serovar Pattern |
---|---|---|---|---|
Barn-laid | A | 4/5 | S. Orion | 2 |
S. Tennessee, S. Alsterdorf subs. II | 1 | |||
S. Muenchen | 1 | |||
B | 2/2 | S. Infantis | 1 | |
S. Infantis, S. Kiambu, S. Tennessee | 1 | |||
C | 0/2 | — | — | |
E | 6/6 | S. Typhimurium | 6 | |
Free-range | C | 2/2 | S. Typhimurium | 1 |
S. Typhimurium, S. Choleraesius v. Decatur | 1 | |||
D | 1/1 | S. Typhimurium | 1 | |
F | 5/5 | S. Typhimurium | 1 | |
S. Typhimurium, S. Infantis | 3 | |||
S. Typhimurium, S. Infantis, S. Anatum | 1 | |||
G | 3/3 | S. Typhimurium | 1 | |
S. Typhimurium, S. Infantis | 2 |
Question Categories | Variables | No. (%) of Egg Businesses |
---|---|---|
Locality | Metro | 5 (71.4) |
Out-metro | 2 (28.6) | |
Production system | Barn-laid | 3 (42.9) |
Free-range | 4 (57.1) | |
Quality management system | ||
Does your business have Quality Assurance/Food Safety Management Statement in place? | Yes | 7 (100.0) |
No | — | |
Does your business have a HACCP (Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points) based food safety program in place? | Yes | 7 (100.0) |
No | — | |
Who is responsible on HACCP management in your business? | External agent/service | 1(14.3) |
Onsite dedicated staff | 6 (85.7) | |
Feed and water supply | ||
How do you source stockfeed used for laying hens? | From manufacture or supplier | 7 (100) |
Assemble dry mash or pelleted feed onsite | — | |
What is the name of the feed supplier? | Supplier A | 3 (42.8) |
Supplier B | 2 (28.6) | |
Supplier C | 2 (28.6) | |
Do you test incoming feed for Salmonella? | Yes (sometimes) | 1 (14.3) |
No | 6 (85.7) | |
What is the source of water provided for laying hens? | Non-reticulated water, bore water | 4 (57.1) |
Non-reticulated water, dam water | 1 (14.3) | |
Reticulated water supply (scheme water) | 2 (28.6) | |
Layer management | ||
Are birds single- or multi-aged? | Single-aged | 7 (100) |
Multi-aged | — | |
Do you source replacement birds from single or multiple suppliers? | Single | 7 (100) |
Multiple | — | |
What is the name of the bird supplier? | Supplier X | 2 (28.6) |
Supplier Y | 4 (57.1) | |
Not answered | 1 (14.3) | |
Do you require replacement birds to be vaccinated against Salmonella? | Yes | 1 (14.3) |
No | 4 (57.1) | |
Sometimes | 1 (14.3) | |
Not answered | 1 (14.3) | |
Do you request a declaration from the hen stock supplier that chicks are tested free from Salmonella? | Yes | 4 (57.1) |
No | 2 (28.6) | |
Not answered | 1 (14.3) | |
Do you routinely take microbiological samples for testing for Salmonella in layers farm environment throughout production age? | Yes | 4 (57.1) |
No | 3 (42.9) | |
Do you routinely take microbiological samples for verification testing of cleaning and sanitisation program between flocks? | Yes | 1 (14.3) |
No | 5 (71.4) | |
Not answered | 1 (14.3) | |
Aspects of biosecurity management | ||
Does your business have a policy of restricted person’s access (staff and verified visitors only)? | Yes | 7 (100.0) |
No | — | |
For visitors, do you have a policy of insisting on a 48- to 72-hour delay in between farm visits? | Yes | 4 (57.1) |
No | 3 (42.9) | |
For visitors, do you maintain vehicle wheel wash? | Yes | 1 (14.3) |
No | 6 (85.7) | |
At each shed entry, do you maintain footbaths filled with sanitiser? | Yes | 5 (71.4) |
No | 2 (28.6) | |
At each shed entry, do you maintain handwashing facilities (basin)? | Yes | 5 (71.4) |
No | 2 (28.6) | |
Before shed entry is there an ante-room facility? | Yes | 5 (71.4) |
No | 2 (28.6) | |
Are workers and visitors required to wear personal protective equipment (PPE) and/or specific protective clothes before entering the shed? | Yes | 3 (42.9) |
No | 4 (57.1) | |
Are workers and visitors required to change their clothes while walking between sheds? | Yes | 1 (14.3) |
No | 5 (71.4) | |
Not answered | 1 (14.3) | |
Do wild animals and birds have access to laying sheds? | Yes | 3 (42.9) |
No | 4 (57.1) | |
Do rodents have access to laying sheds? | Yes | 6 (85.7) |
No | 1 (14.3) | |
Do domestic pets have access to laying sheds? | Yes | — |
No | 7 (100.0) | |
Do you keep other livestock on the farm? | Yes | 3 (42.9) |
No | 4 (57.1) | |
Egg handling practices and processes | ||
What is the egg collection method used by business? | Fully automated | 1 (14.3) |
Semi-automated | 3 (42.8) | |
By hand | 3 (42.8) | |
What is the egg grading method used by business? | Fully automated | 1 (14.3) |
Semi-automated | 3 (42.9) | |
By hand | 3 (42.8) | |
How frequently are eggs collected on a daily basis? | Once/day | 3 (42.9) |
Twice/day | 1 (14.3) | |
Three times and more/day | 3 (42.8) | |
How long is the storage period for collected eggs before egg grading (time between collections to grading)? | Within 24 hrs | 4 (57.1) |
Up to 48 hrs | 3 (42.9) | |
What is the typical storage temperature of pre-graded eggs? | Ambient | 4 (57.1) |
≤15°C | 3 (42.9) | |
How often do you sanitise egg handling equipment? | Daily | 4 (57.1) |
Weekly | 1 (14.3) | |
Monthly | 1 (14.3) | |
Not answered | 1 (14.3) | |
Which of the following best describes the hairline crack detection system you have in place? | Visual | 3 (42.9) |
Candling | 4 (57.1) |
Sample Type | Collection Methodology from Each Flock |
---|---|
Pooled faecal material | Approximately 200–300 g or 40 fecal pinches were collected from different areas of the shed floor or deep pit. |
Dust | Approximately 50 g of dust was collected from 40 different surfaces with a visible dust presence, including ledges, tops of nest boxes, and ventilators, inside each shed and placed into Whirl-Pak sample bags. |
Boot swab | Boot swabs were worn over sterile plastic boot covers and sprayed with sterile water. Approximately 100 shuffling steps were taken over different parts of bird access areas inside and outside of sheds. |
Feed | Approximately 250 g of feed was collected from feed troughs and feeder silos. |
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Sodagari, H.R.; Habib, I.; Whiddon, S.; Wang, P.; Mohammed, A.B.; Robertson, I.; Goodchild, S. Occurrence and Characterization of Salmonella Isolated from Table Egg Layer Farming Environments in Western Australia and Insights into Biosecurity and Egg Handling Practices. Pathogens 2020, 9, 56. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9010056
Sodagari HR, Habib I, Whiddon S, Wang P, Mohammed AB, Robertson I, Goodchild S. Occurrence and Characterization of Salmonella Isolated from Table Egg Layer Farming Environments in Western Australia and Insights into Biosecurity and Egg Handling Practices. Pathogens. 2020; 9(1):56. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9010056
Chicago/Turabian StyleSodagari, Hamid Reza, Ihab Habib, Scott Whiddon, Penghao Wang, Arkan Baraa Mohammed, Ian Robertson, and Stan Goodchild. 2020. "Occurrence and Characterization of Salmonella Isolated from Table Egg Layer Farming Environments in Western Australia and Insights into Biosecurity and Egg Handling Practices" Pathogens 9, no. 1: 56. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9010056