Interrupted Lives: Welfare Considerations in Wildlife Rehabilitation
Abstract
:Simple Summary
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Wildlife Rehabilitation
2.1. Federally Regulated Wildlife Rehabilitation
2.1.1. Migratory Bird Rehabilitation
2.1.2. Sea Turtle Rehabilitation
2.1.3. Marine Mammal Rehabilitation
2.2. State Regulated Wildlife Rehabilitation
Terrestrial Wildlife Rehabilitation
3. Standards of Care in Wildlife Rehabilitation
3.1. Standards of Care in Migratory Bird Rehabilitation
3.2. Standards of Care in Sea Turtle Rehabilitation
3.3. Standards of Care in Marine Mammal Rehabilitation
3.4. Standards of Care in Terrestrial Wildlife Rehabilitation
4. Welfare Considerations during Wildlife Rehabilitation
4.1. Migratory Bird Welfare
4.1.1. Euthanasia of Migratory Birds
4.1.2. Release of Migratory Birds to the Wild
Post-Release Monitoring of Migratory Birds
4.1.3. Captive Placement of Migratory Birds
4.2. Sea Turtle Welfare
4.2.1. Euthanasia of Sea Turtles
4.2.2. Release of Sea Turtles to the Wild
Post-Release Monitoring of Sea Turtles
4.2.3. Captive Placement of Sea Turtles
4.3. Marine Mammal Welfare
4.3.1. Euthanasia of Marine Mammals
4.3.2. Release of Marine Mammals to the Wild
Post-Release Monitoring of Marine Mammals
4.3.3. Captive Placement of Marine Mammals
4.4. Terrestrial Animal Welfare
4.4.1. Euthanasia of Terrestrial Wildlife
4.4.2. Release of Terrestrial Wildlife to the Wild
Post-Release Monitoring of Terrestrial Wildlife
4.4.3. Captive Placement of Terrestrial Wildlife
5. Conclusions
- Preventing Anthropogenic Causes of Admission. Increasing numbers of animals are being admitted due to anthropogenic causes related to human activities [3,116]. Examining the reasons of wildlife admission provides an opportunity to work upstream to develop mitigation strategies. Preventing the need for rehabilitative care is the best way to improve the welfare of wildlife.
- Providing Resources and Support for Rehabilitation. In the US, wildlife rehabilitation is largely paid for by private individuals and donations. The adoption of established best practices may be limited by physical and/or financial resources. Having public funding at the federal, state, or county level specifically directed to wildlife rehabilitation would allow for improved care and outcomes of wild animals. Although urban wildlife management is a growing field within state fish and game departments, a dedicated revenue stream for wildlife rehabilitation has yet to be identified [171,175].
- Continued Development of Evidence-based Wildlife Rehabilitation Methods and Welfare Measures. The advent of electronic database programs specific to wildlife rehabilitation [176,177,178,179] has resulted in greater access to large data sets. These data provide vital information for making better care choices for individuals and facilities. By combining these data in collaboration with other institutions and data from post-release monitoring, wildlife rehabilitation professionals can develop protocols with the highest likelihood of successful outcomes, and concurrently improve the welfare of all animals under care [2,25,31,118,174,180].
- Greater Engagement of the Veterinary Profession. Wildlife welfare would benefit greatly from increased veterinary involvement in wildlife rehabilitation. All animals need a rapid and thorough assessment within the first few hours of presentation. Only veterinarians can provide diagnostic testing, surgical care, access to analgesics, the most humane euthanasia methods, and recommend captive placement. There is training available for veterinarians and veterinary students [181,182].
- Harmonization of Regulatory Oversight with Standards of Care, Training, and Accountability. Federal and state regulatory policies should be reviewed and updated on a regular schedule. These reviews should incorporate the most recent evidence-based science and enhance standards of rehabilitative care, training, and accountability to ensure optimal welfare for wildlife. Increasing harmonization of wildlife rehabilitation policies within federal programs, between state programs, and between federal and state programs would also improve wildlife welfare by ensuring prompt care and allowing for more data aggregation. Ongoing collaborations between federal and state level regulators, wildlife rehabilitators, and clinical wildlife veterinarians help prepare for and mitigate the challenges ahead for wildlife and rehabilitation.
- Increasing Public Education. Interactions between urban wildlife and the public are increasing. Stimulating interest in local wildlife to prevent conflict, countering misinformation about animal behavior, and providing tools for successful coexistence with wildlife is another strategy to reduce the number of animals in need of rehabilitative care [30,183,184].
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
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Criteria | Euthanasia | Release | Captive Placement |
---|---|---|---|
Mission | Rare; if release fails, assess physical, emotional, behavioral, and environmental aspects for placement | ||
Legal Restrictions | |||
Federal | Appropriate federal MBTA Permit—Rehabilitation MBTA—any bird that cannot feed itself, perch upright, or ambulate without inflicting additional injuries to itself where medical and/or rehabilitative care will not reverse such conditions; any bird that is completely blind; and any bird that has sustained injuries that would require amputation of a leg, a foot, or a wing at the elbow or above (humeroulnar joint) MBTA—obtain authorization before euthanizing endangered and threatened migratory bird species… without USFWS authorization when prompt euthanasia is warranted by humane consideration for the welfare of the bird. | Appropriate federal MBTA Permit—Rehabilitation | MBTA Permit—Veterinarian Statement of Condition that Renders Migratory Bird/Eagle as Non-Releasable MBTA Permit—Special Purpose—Possession for Education (Live) BGEPA Permit—Eagle Exhibition |
Drug Enforcement Agency—Controlled Substances Act | Drug Enforcement Agency—Controlled Substances Act Food and Drug Agency— Federal Food and Drug Cosmetic Act (AMDUCA) | ||
State | Appropriate state wildlife rehabilitation permit Veterinary Practice Acts Pharmacy Schedule Reportable Diseases List | Appropriate state wildlife rehabilitation permit Veterinary Practice Acts Pharmacy Schedule Reportable Diseases List | Appropriate state wildlife placement permit |
Assessments | |||
Physical/Body | Non-repairable bony fractures or soft-tissue injuries Malunion or healed malaligned fracture Joint trauma including fractures/luxations/subluxations Partial wing amputations * >10% decrease in long bone length (except femur) Significant trauma to patagium and/or patagial tendon * Coelomic trauma with exposed/contaminated internal organs “Spinal trauma” with posterior paralysis and/or no “deep pain” response Severe toxicity with clinical signs * Severe starvation * Permanent eye injury (injuries) with vision deficits * Severe pododermatitis (Grade 4/5) Amputation of 1st and/or 2nd digit * “Three Strikes Rule” * | Full recovery from illness and/or injuries with no clinical evidence of complications Goals of physical reconditioning program met with normal flight mechanics, strength, and endurance for species A complete set of healthy remiges and rectrices (natural or imped) No risk to human/domestic animal/wildlife/environmental health and safety | Injuries are completely healed Illness or injury will not progress Permanent injury compatible with captive purpose |
Emotional/Mind | Prior injury/illness is not painful Adapting well to captivity | ||
Behavioral/Nature | Exhibits inappropriate behavior due to medical condition Hard “malimprint” or habituated * | Exhibits species-appropriate natural behaviors Able to acquire live prey | Exhibits species-appropriate behavior Injury/illness will not prevent opportunities to thrive (perch, move, balance, self-feed, bathe, and conduct species appropriate behaviors) Does not exhibit self-destructive or stereotypic behaviors Not aggressive towards humans |
Resources (Required vs Available) | Training as appropriate for method Licensing as appropriate for method (chemical euthanasia) Availability of proposed drug for chemical euthanasia | Resources required for care and/or treatment, including facility/equipment, diet, knowledge, skills Understanding of species biology, natural history, welfare needs and behavior Rehabilitation of this individual will not adversely affect the facility’s operation Availability of nest/foster nest Appropriate release protocol Identification and post-release monitoring if possible | Appropriate placement available, including permits, resources, knowledge, training and welfare standards Appropriate acquisition for facility’s collection plan Access to veterinary services Appropriate housing available Environment appropriate to exhibit natural behaviors |
Professional Standards Best Practices References | AVMA Guidelines for Euthanasia of Animals (Current Edition) NWRA Wildlife Formulary (Current Edition) AVMA Professional Code of Ethics NWRA Professional Code of Ethics | NWRA Minimum Standards for Wildlife Rehabilitation (Current Edition) NWRA Principles of Wildlife Rehabilitation (Current Edition) IWRC Wildlife Rehabilitation—A Comprehensive Approach (Current Edition) | Raptors in Captivity: Guidelines for Care and Management (Current Edition) AZA Institutional Ambassador Animal Policy/Placement Tool Wildlife In Education: A Guide for the Care and Use of Program Animals (Current Edition) GFAS Standards for Birds of Prey Sanctuaries (Current Edition) NWRA Professional Code of Ethics—Educators |
Means to Reduce Stress—Practice Controls | Means to Reduce Stress—Administrative Controls |
---|---|
Proximity to humans | |
Use peripheral vision/avoid direct eye contact Provide visual barriers Provide species-appropriate ambient sound Provide hides/retreat spaces Avoid placing enclosures in high-traffic areas Reduce time in captivity when it no longer benefits the patient Set rules for media interaction | Foster a work culture that is focused on stress reduction and patient advocacy Be mindful of the experience the patient is having at all times Educate all staff, volunteers, and visitors about stress and stress-reduction practices Develop written policies about talking, answering phones, or otherwise attempting to multitask while caring for patients Develop written media guidelines for rescue or release Have policies in place regarding appropriate behavior around patients |
Restricted movement/Reduced retreat space | |
Offer complex enriched environments; Offer opportunities for exploration Mimic natural surroundings and substrates Provide hides/retreat spaces if space allows Provide visual barriers on the enclosure in lieu of retreat space Reduce captive auditory stressors | Develop an enrichment plan that includes elements related to all senses Develop a matrix that identifies enrichment opportunities for patients at different activity levels or rehabilitation phases |
Foreign environment and loss of control/decision-making capacity | |
Use natural history to inform decisions; observe seasonal photoperiod and humidity Use appropriate indoor lighting; avoid use of fluorescent lights Mimic normal thermal environments when possible; mimic natural surroundings and substrates Offer complex enriched environments Provide opportunities for choice (e.g., food items, enrichment items, shelter options) | Assign one person (or a team of volunteers) to create enrichment opportunities for in-house patients on a weekly basis Develop an enrichment calendar so that types of enrichment offered are rotated on a regular basis Design larger enclosures with areas of different temperatures, humidity, light, hides, or other options, to diversify choices |
Visual, auditory, and olfactory stressors | |
Avoid direct eye contact and sudden movements Refrain from wearing jewelry, bold patterns, or bright colors Be mindful of light intensity and light selection; avoid use of fluorescent lights Use cage covers that let light through while still providing visual barrier when appropriate Be aware of sounds from routine tasks, and try to mitigate them Use white-noise machines or appropriate nature recordings to mask unnatural sounds (e.g., use recordings of ocean sounds for seabirds and shorebirds) Use natural colors within the facility (e.g., walls, floors, artwork, uniforms, sheets/towels) Use unscented cleaning products whenever possible; refrain from using perfumes or scented lotions Do not smoke or use car air fresheners in transport vehicles Avoid placing enclosures in high-traffic areas | Create a culture where consideration of patient’s audio experience is prioritized Develop written dress code policy Develop written policies to reduce unnecessary “peeking” into enclosures by staff and volunteers Develop written policies to reduce speaking in clinic or rehabilitation center, or with patients in hand Model behavior for others Design interior spaces to take advantage of natural light sources |
Capture, handling, and restraint | |
Use passive capture techniques that do not require handling, and limit chase Use experienced personnel for difficult captures Allow new patients to rest and recover from capture, handling, and transport stress prior to performing exams unless immediate life-saving treatment is required Use firm but gentle restraint Keep patient’s head covered unless it is being examined Have tools and supplies necessary for treatment to reduce time in hand Have a handler for exams/treatments when appropriate Limit readjustments and movement of the animal on the exam table (e.g., the examiner can move when possible rather than move the animal) Consider natural history and physical build of the patient to identify ways to increase comfort (e.g., memory foam can be added to exam tables for large-bodied birds to relieve pressure on the keel; mirrors can be used to examine the undersides/bellies of porcupines) Reduce need for capture and handling in the facility by use of remote monitoring Evaluate the necessity of handling and weigh the cost to the benefit of treatment Use retractable curtains, temporary walls, or other physical barriers to reduce enclosure dimensions during capture | Have written transport policies and protocols for volunteers and staff Design and arrange enclosure furnishings to ease capture Design new enclosures to ease capture (e.g., built-in capture chutes, dens with doors that can be closed remotely, hospital cages with dividers) Know the goals for each exam or treatment |
Pain | |
Provide appropriate substrates and padding as needed; medically manage pain Euthanize non-treatable animals as soon as possible to prevent further suffering | Stay current on pain management protocols and support therapies Develop written euthanasia guidelines and protocols specific to the species in rehabilitation and the resources available at the facility Network and consult with other rehabilitators on difficult decisions, particularly rehabilitators with species’ expertise |
Proximity to nonhuman predators | |
Provide visual and auditory barriers House predator and prey species in separate areas House predators out of visual and hearing range of prey species | Map out enclosures with species designations Consider predator/prey proximity when designing enclosures |
Disturbance (peeking, observations, cage cleaning, feeding) | |
Establish routines; bundle tasks; reduce disturbance Prohibit or restrict visitors Move slowly; avoid direct eye contact Use remote cameras, baby monitors, or ceiling-mounted mirrors to observe behavior without handling | Have a written policy regarding visitors and public access Patients should not be able to see members of the public at any time (see USFWS 50 CFR 21.71) |
Maintenance in abnormal social groups | |
House with conspecifics Provide foster parent when appropriate; reduce the number of individuals per enclosure Do not transport or house wildlife patients with domestic animals | Develop a policy for transferring single juvenile animals to a facility with conspecifics (and form a network to facilitate transfers) Have a written policy for a number of animals to be housed in each enclosure Have a written policy establishing limits on intake of number of individuals per species |
Reduced feeding opportunities | |
Offer complex feeding challenges (e.g., food hidden in environment, food inside objects) Use native plants when possible Use techniques to provide natural live foods, such as fruit bins to attract edible insects (e.g., fruit flies) Place food in a location where animals feel comfortable feeding (e.g., away from entrance) | Develop an enrichment plan that includes elements related to all senses Develop a matrix that identifies enrichment opportunities for patients at different activity levels or rehabilitation phases |
Diet change | |
Use native plants and seasonal/natural food sources when appropriate Use natural history to inform methods of food presentation Identify tricks for encouraging difficult eaters in captivity; leave enough food of multiple varieties in enclosures | Network with species specialists about best foods, tricks and techniques Calculate metabolic requirements and deficits to determine the amount to be fed Develop a network to gather natural foods (e.g., local fishermen, gardeners, naturalists to collect insects) |
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Willette, M.; Rosenhagen, N.; Buhl, G.; Innis, C.; Boehm, J. Interrupted Lives: Welfare Considerations in Wildlife Rehabilitation. Animals 2023, 13, 1836. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13111836
Willette M, Rosenhagen N, Buhl G, Innis C, Boehm J. Interrupted Lives: Welfare Considerations in Wildlife Rehabilitation. Animals. 2023; 13(11):1836. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13111836
Chicago/Turabian StyleWillette, Michelle, Nicki Rosenhagen, Gail Buhl, Charles Innis, and Jeff Boehm. 2023. "Interrupted Lives: Welfare Considerations in Wildlife Rehabilitation" Animals 13, no. 11: 1836. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13111836
APA StyleWillette, M., Rosenhagen, N., Buhl, G., Innis, C., & Boehm, J. (2023). Interrupted Lives: Welfare Considerations in Wildlife Rehabilitation. Animals, 13(11), 1836. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13111836