Physics of Space Weather Phenomena: A Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Space Weather: The Solar Perspective
2.1. Solar Activity
2.1.1. The Solar Wind
The Source Regions of Solar Wind Streams
2.1.2. CMEs and ICMEs
2.1.3. Solar Flares
2.1.4. Solar Energetic Particles (SEPs)
2.1.5. Filaments (Prominences)
3. Space Weather: Terrestrial Perspective
3.1. Sun–Earth Interaction and Magnetosphere
3.1.1. The Solar Wind–Magnetosphere Interaction
3.1.2. Magnetospheric Dynamics: Current Understanding
3.2. Storm–Substorm Association
3.3. Magnetotail Dynamics
3.3.1. Bursty Bulk Flows, Dipolarization Fronts and Dipolarization Flux Bundles
3.3.2. BBF Size and Magnetotail Flux Transport
3.3.3. The Effects of Preconditioning on Magnetotail Dynamics
3.4. Ring Current and Space Weather
3.4.1. Ring Current Electrons and Effects on Satellites
3.4.2. Ring Current and Inner Magnetosphere Populations
Ring Current and Radiation Belts
Ring Current and Plasmasphere
3.4.3. Ring Current, Ionosphere and Below
3.5. Space Weather Effects on the Earth
3.5.1. Extreme Space Weather
3.5.2. Effect on Technologies
3.5.3. Space Weather—Societal Impacts
3.6. Anthropogenic Space Weather
3.6.1. Geophysical/Geomagnetic Signatures of High-Altitude Nuclear Explosions
3.6.2. Space Weather Effects on Anthropogenic VLF Transmissions
3.6.3. Artificial Radiation Belts
3.7. Solar Energy Variations and Climatic Change
3.7.1. Solar Irradiance Measurements
3.7.2. Solar UV Irradiance
3.7.3. SEPs and Galactic Cosmic Rays
4. Space Weather Predictions and Future Prospective
4.1. Space Climate—Long-Term Variations
4.2. Space Weather Predictions: Current Status
4.2.1. Future Developments: Modelling and Forecasting
4.2.2. Space Weather Prediction by Cosmic Rays
Solar Proton Events
Geomagnetic Storms
4.2.3. Approaches to SEP Forecasting
Empirical Models
5. Space-Based Observations
6. Discussion
7. Summary
8. Some Unanswered Questions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Singh, A.K.; Bhargawa, A.; Siingh, D.; Singh, R.P. Physics of Space Weather Phenomena: A Review. Geosciences 2021, 11, 286. https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences11070286
Singh AK, Bhargawa A, Siingh D, Singh RP. Physics of Space Weather Phenomena: A Review. Geosciences. 2021; 11(7):286. https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences11070286
Chicago/Turabian StyleSingh, Ashok Kumar, Asheesh Bhargawa, Devendraa Siingh, and Ram Pal Singh. 2021. "Physics of Space Weather Phenomena: A Review" Geosciences 11, no. 7: 286. https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences11070286