Body Image Concerns: The Impact of Digital Technologies and Psychopathological Risks in a Normative Sample of Adolescents
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Theoretical Background
1.2. The Present Study
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Participants and Procedure
2.2. Measures
2.3. Data Analyses
3. Results
3.1. Differences among Subjects by Gender and Age
3.2. Correlations between the Variables of Interest Considering the Total Sample and Subgroups Related to Gender and Age
3.3. Association of Technological Addictions (IA and SMA) with Body Image Concerns
4. Discussion
4.1. Main Findings
4.2. Limitations and Suggestions for Future Research
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Leung, L. Net-generation attributes and seductive properties of the internet as predictors of online activities and internet addiction. Cyberpsychol. Behav. Impact Internet Multimed. Virtual Real. Behav. Soc. 2004, 7, 333–348. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nalwa, K.; Anand, A.P. Internet addiction in students: A cause of concern. Cyberpsychol. Behav. Impact Internet Multimed. Virtual Real. Behav. Soc. 2003, 6, 653–656. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Suhail, K.; Bargees, Z. Effects of excessive Internet use on undergraduate students in Pakistan. Cyberpsychol. Behav. Impact Internet Multimed. Virtual Real. Behav. Soc. 2006, 9, 297–307. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kim, J.; Haridakis, P.M. The role of internet user characteristics and motives in explaining three dimensions of internet addiction. J. Comput.-Mediat. Commun. JCMC 2009, 14, 988–1015. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Prensky, M. Don’t Bother Me, Mom, I’m Learning! How Computer and Video Games Are Preparing Your Kids for 21st Century Success and How You; Paragon House: St. Paul, MN, USA, 2006. [Google Scholar]
- Curtis, A. Defining adolescence. J. Adolesc. Fam. Health 2015, 7. [Google Scholar]
- Worthman, C.M.; Trang, K. Dynamics of body time, social time and life history at adolescence. Nature 2018, 554, 451–457. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sigrist, M. Puberty, Physical Activity Levels and Internalizing and Externalizing behaviors, Effect on Adolescent Body Image: Longitudinal Study; Undergraduate Research and Scholarship: Boise, ID, USA, 2016. [Google Scholar]
- Israelashvili, M.; Kim, T.; Bukobza, G. Adolescents’ over-use of the cyber world-Internet addiction or identity exploration? J. Adolesc. 2012, 35, 417–424. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Thompson, J.K.; Heinberg, L.J.; Altabe, M.N.; Tantleff-Dunn, S. Exacting Beauty: Theory, Assessment, and Treatment of Body Image Disturbance; American Psychological Association: Washington, DC, USA, 1999. [Google Scholar]
- Mahon, C.; Hevey, D. Processing body image on social media: Gender differences in adolescent boys’ and girls’ agency and active coping. Front. Psychol. 2021, 12, 626763. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fredrickson, B.L.; Roberts, T.-A. Objectification theory: Toward understanding women’s lived experiences and mental health risks. Psychol. Women Q. 1997, 21, 173–206. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mckinley, N.M.; Hyde, J.S. The objectified body consciousness scale: Development and validation. Psychol. Women Q. 1996, 20, 181–215. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ruggiero, I. Adolescence terminable et interminable. Rev. Fr. De Psychanal. 2013, 77, 474–489. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Stanley, T.; Barnes, J.; Short, E. Appearance-focused internet use and the thin-beauty ideal. Stud. Media Commun. 2015, 3, 38–50. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Tiggemann, M.; Miller, J. The internet and adolescent girls’ weight satisfaction and drive for thinness. Sex Roles 2010, 63, 79–90. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Boyd, D.M.; Ellison, N.B. Social network sites: Definition, history, and scholarship. J. Comput. -Mediat. Commun. JCMC 2007, 13, 210–230. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- West, A.; Lewis, J.; Currie, P. Students’ Facebook ‘friends’: Public and private spheres. J. Youth Stud. 2009, 12, 615–627. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chang, L.; Li, P.; Loh RS, M.; Chua TH, H. A study of Singapore adolescent girls’ selfie practices, peer appearance comparisons, and body esteem on Instagram. Body Image 2019, 29, 90–99. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Holland, G.; Tiggemann, M. A systematic review of the impact of the use of social networking sites on body image and disordered eating outcomes. Body Image 2016, 17, 100–110. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Saiphoo, A.N.; Vahedi, Z. A meta-analytic review of the relationship between social media use and body image disturbance. Comput. Hum. Behav. 2019, 101, 259–275. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Griffiths, S.; Mond, J.M.; Murray, S.B.; Touyz, S. Young peoples’ stigmatizing attitudes and beliefs about anorexia nervosa and muscle dysmorphia: Beliefs About Anorexia and Muscle Dysmorphia. Int. J. Eat. Disord. 2014, 47, 189–195. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kenny, U.; Sullivan, L.; Callaghan, M.; Molcho, M.; Kelly, C. The relationship between cyberbullying and friendship dynamics on adolescent body dissatisfaction: A cross-sectional study. J. Health Psychol. 2018, 23, 629–639. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Rodgers, R.F.; Slater, A.; Gordon, C.S.; McLean, S.A.; Jarman, H.K.; Paxton, S.J. A biopsychosocial model of social media use and body image concerns, disordered eating, and muscle-building behaviors among adolescent girls and boys. J. Youth Adolesc. 2020, 49, 399–409. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- McCabe, M.P.; Ricciardelli, L.A. Body image and strategies to lose weight and increase muscle among boys and girls. Health Psychol. 2003, 22, 39–46. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Abbott, B.D.; Barber, B.L. Embodied image: Gender differences in functional and aesthetic body image among Australian adolescents. Body Image 2010, 7, 22–31. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ryding, F.C.; Kuss, D.J. The use of social networking sites, body image dissatisfaction, and body dysmorphic disorder: A systematic review of psychological research. Psychol. Pop. Media 2020, 9, 412–435. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- De Valle, M.K.; Gallego-García, M.; Williamson, P.; Wade, T.D. Social media, body image, and the question of causation: Meta-analyses of experimental and longitudinal evidence. Body Image 2021, 39, 276–292. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5 (R)), 5th ed.; American Psychiatric Association Publishing: Washington, DC, USA, 2013. [Google Scholar]
- Loeber, R.; Burke, J.D. Developmental pathways in juvenile externalizing and internalizing problems. J. Res. Adolesc. 2011, 21, 34–46. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Kuss, D.J.; Griffiths, M.D.; Binder, J.F. Internet addiction in students: Prevalence and risk factors. Comput. Hum. Behav. 2013, 29, 959–966. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Reiner, I.; Tibubos, A.N.; Hardt, J.; Müller, K.; Wölfling, K.; Beutel, M.E. Peer attachment, specific patterns of internet use and problematic internet use in male and female adolescents. Eur. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 2017, 26, 1257–1268. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sun, Y.; Wang, Y.; Han, X.; Jiang, W.; Ding, W.; Cao, M.; Du, Y.; Lin, F.; Xu, J.; Zhou, Y. Sex differences in resting-state cerebral activity alterations in internet gaming disorder. Brain Imaging Behav. 2019, 13, 1406–1417. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cerniglia, L.; Griffiths, M.D.; Cimino, S.; De Palo, V.; Monacis, L.; Sinatra, M.; Tambelli, R. A latent profile approach for the study of internet gaming disorder, social media addiction, and psychopathology in a normative sample of adolescents. Psychol. Res. Behav. Manag. 2019, 12, 651–659. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Cerniglia, L.; Guicciardi, M.; Sinatra, M.; Monacis, L.; Simonelli, A.; Cimino, S. The use of digital technologies, impulsivity and psychopathological symptoms in adolescence. Behav. Sci. 2019, 9, 82. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Steinberg, L.D. Adolescence, 10th ed.; McGraw-Hill Professional: New York, NY, USA, 2013. [Google Scholar]
- Griffiths, S.; Murray, S.B.; Krug, I.; McLean, S.A. The contribution of social media to body dissatisfaction, eating disorder symptoms, and anabolic steroid use among sexual minority men. Cyberpsychology Behav. Soc. Netw. 2018, 21, 149–156. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Bornstein, M.H.; Bradley, R.H. Socioeconomic Status, Parenting, and Child Development; Routledge: New York, NY, USA, 2014. [Google Scholar]
- Taherdoost, H. Sampling methods in research methodology; how to choose a sampling technique for research; How to Choose a Sampling Technique for Research. SSRN Electron. J. 2016, 5, 18–27. [Google Scholar]
- Etikan, I.; Musa, S.A.; Alkassim, R.S. Comparison of convenience sampling and purposive sampling and purposive sampling. Am. J. Theor. Appl. Stat. 2016, 5, 1–4. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Littleton, H.L.; Axsom, D.; Pury, C.L.S. Development of the body image concern inventory. Behav. Res. Ther. 2005, 43, 229–241. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Luca, M.; Giannini, M.; Gori, A.; Littleton, H. Measuring dysmorphic concern in Italy: Psychometric properties of the Italian Body Image Concern Inventory (I-BICI). Body Image 2011, 8, 301–305. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Andreassen, C.S.; Billieux, J.; Griffiths, M.D.; Kuss, D.J.; Demetrovics, Z.; Mazzoni, E. The relationship between addictive use of social media and video games and symptoms of psychiatric disorders: A large-scale cross-sectional study. Psychol. Addict. Behav. 2016, 30, 252. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Griffiths, M. A ‘components’ model of addiction within a biopsychosocial framework. J. Subst. Use 2005, 10, 191–197. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Monacis, L.; de Palo, V.; Griffiths, M.D.; Sinatra, M. Social networking addiction, attachment style, and validation of the Italian version of the Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale. J. Behav. Addict. 2017, 6, 178–186. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Young, K.S. Caught in the Net: How to Recognize the Signs of Internet Addiction—And a Winning Strategy for Recovery; John Wiley & Sons: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 1998. [Google Scholar]
- Khazaal, Y.; Billieux, J.; Thorens, G.; Khan, R.; Louati, Y.; Scarlatti, E.; Theintz, F.; Lederrey, J.; Van Der Linden, M.; Zullino, D. French validation of the internet addiction test. Cyberpsychol. Behav. 2008, 11, 703–706. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Widyanto, L.; McMurran, M. The psychometric properties of the internet addiction test. Cyberpsychol. Behav. 2004, 7, 443–450. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Fioravanti, G.; Casale, S. Evaluation of the psychometric properties of the Italian Internet Addiction Test. Cyberpsychol. Behav. Soc. Netw. 2015, 18, 120–128. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Achenbach, T.M. Manual for the Youth Self-Report and 1991 Profile; University of Vermont, Department of Psychiatry: Burlington, VT, USA, 1991. [Google Scholar]
- DeFrancesco, J.J.; Armstrong, S.S.; Russolillo, P.J. On the reliability of the youth self-report. Psychol. Rep. 1996, 79, 322. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Song, L.-Y.; Singh, J.; Singer, M. The Youth Self-Report inventory: A study of its measurements fidelity. Psychol. Assess. 1994, 6, 236–245. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Steinhausen, H.-C.; Metzke, C.W. Youth self-report of behavioral and emotional problems in a Swiss epidemiological study. J. Youth Adolesc. 1998, 27, 429–441. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mingoia, J.; Hutchinson, A.D.; Wilson, C.; Gleaves, D.H. The relationship between social networking site use and the internalization of a thin ideal in females: A meta-analytic review. Front. Psychol. 2017, 8, 1351. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Laconi, S.; Pirès, S.; Chabrol, H. Internet gaming disorder, motives, game genres and psychopathology. Comput. Hum. Behav. 2017, 75, 652–659. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ara, E. Internalizing and externalizing problems in adolescents analyzing the gender difference. Int. J. Res. Soc. Sci. 2016, 6, 328–337. [Google Scholar]
- Bekhbat, M.; Neigh, G.N. Sex di erences in the neuro-immune consequences of stress: Focus on depression and anxiety. Brain Behav. Immun. 2017, 67, 1–12. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yang, H.; Wang, J.J.; Tng GY, Q.; Yang, S. Effects of social media and smartphone use on body esteem in female adolescents: Testing a cognitive and affective model. Children 2020, 7, 148. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Vuong, A.T.; Jarman, H.K.; Doley, J.R.; McLean, S.A. Social media use and body dissatisfaction in adolescents: The moderating role of thin- and muscular-ideal internalisation. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 13222. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Jarman, H.K.; Marques, M.D.; McLean, S.A.; Slater, A.; Paxton, S.J. Social media, body satisfaction and well-being among adolescents: A mediation model of appearance-ideal internalization and comparison. Body Image 2021, 36, 139–148. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fardouly, J.; Vartanian, L.R. Social media and body image concerns: Current research and future directions. Curr. Opin. Psychol. 2016, 9, 1–5. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kim, J.W.; Chock, T.M. Body image 2.0: Associations between social grooming on Facebook and body image concerns. Comput. Hum. Behav. 2015, 48, 331–339. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Marengo, D.; Longobardi, C.; Fabris, M.A.; Settanni, M. Highly-visual social media and internalizing symptoms in adolescence: The mediating role of body image concerns. Comput. Hum. Behav. 2018, 82, 63–69. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Smith, A.R.; Hames, J.L.; Joiner, T.E., Jr. Status update: Maladaptive Facebook usage predicts increases in body dissatisfaction and bulimic symptoms. J. Affect. Disord. 2013, 149, 235–240. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fardouly, J.; Diedrichs, P.C.; Vartanian, L.R.; Halliwell, E. Social comparisons on social media: The impact of Facebook on young women’s body image concerns and mood. Body Image 2015, 13, 38–45. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tiggemann, M.; Slater, A. NetGirls: The Internet, Facebook, and body image concern in adolescent girls: The Internet and Body Image Concern. Int. J. Eat. Disord. 2013, 46, 630–633. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Vandenbosch, L.; Eggermont, S. Understanding sexual objectification: A comprehensive approach toward media exposure and girls’ internalization of beauty ideals, self-objectification, and body surveillance: Media, adolescent girls, and self-objectification. J. Commun. 2012, 62, 869–887. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Verrastro, V.; Fontanesi, L.; Liga, F.; Cuzzocrea, F.; Gugliandolo, M.C. Fear the Instagram: Beauty stereotypes, body image and Instagram use in a sample of male and female adolescents. Qwerty 2020, 15, 31–49. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Haferkamp, N.; Eimler, S.C.; Papadakis, A.-M.; Kruck, J.V. Men are from Mars, women are from Venus? Examining gender differences in self-presentation on social networking sites. Cyberpsychol. Behav. Soc. Netw. 2012, 15, 91–98. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rousseau, A.; Eggermont, S.; Frison, E. The reciprocal and indirect relationships between passive Facebook use, comparison on Facebook, and adolescents’ body dissatisfaction. Comput. Hum. Behav. 2017, 73, 336–344. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Carter, A.; Forrest, J.I.; Kaida, A. Association between Internet use and body dissatisfaction among young females: Cross-sectional analysis of the Canadian Community Health Survey. J. Med. Internet Res. 2017, 19, e39. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Festinger, L. A theory of social comparison processes. Hum. Relat. Stud. Towards Integr. Soc. Sci. 1954, 7, 117–140. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Aderka, I.M.; Gutner, C.A.; Lazarov, A.; Hermesh, H.; Hofmann, S.G.; Marom, S. Body image in social anxiety disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and panic disorder. Body Image 2014, 11, 51–56. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Heffer, T.; Good, M.; Daly, O.; MacDonell, E.; Willoughby, T. The longitudinal association between social-media use and depressive symptoms among adolescents and young adults: An empirical reply to Twenge et al. (2018). Clin. Psychol. Sci. 2019, 7, 462–470. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Raudsepp, L.; Kais, K. Longitudinal associations between problematic social media use and depressive symptoms in adolescent girls. Prev. Med. Rep. 2019, 15, 100925. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Puukko, K.; Hietajärvi, L.; Maksniemi, E.; Alho, K.; Salmela-Aro, K. Social media use and depressive symptoms—A longitudinal study from early to late adolescence. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 5921. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Hampton, K.N. Social media and change in psychological distress over time: The role of social causation. J. Comput.-Mediat. Commun. 2019, 24, 205–222. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Maia, B.R.; Moreira, H.; Macedo, A.; Pereira, A.T. Generalized problematic internet use, use of social networks, and appearance schemas in late adolescence. Eur. Psychiatry 2021, 64, S559–S560. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hanna, E.; Ward, L.M.; Seabrook, R.C.; Jerald, M.; Reed, L.; Giaccardi, S.; Lippman, J.R. Contributions of social comparison and self-objectification in mediating associations between Facebook use and emergent adults’ psychological well-being. Cyberpsychol. Behav. Soc. Netw. 2017, 20, 172–179. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Goodman, S.H.; Gotlib, I.H. Risk for psychopathology in the children of depressed mothers: A developmental model for understanding mechanisms of transmission. Psychol. Rev. 1999, 106, 458–490. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Monacis, L.; de Palo, V.; Sinatra, M.; Berzonsky, M.D. The Revised Identity Style Inventory: Factor structure and validity in Italian speaking students. Front. Psychol. 2016, 7, 883. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Lenhart, A.; Duggan, M.; Perrin, A.; Stepler, R.; Rainie, L.; Parker, K. Teens, Social Media, and Technology Overview 2015: Smartphones Facilitate Shifts in Communication Landscape for Teens; Pew Research Center: Washington, DC, USA, 2015. [Google Scholar]
- Kuss, D.J.; Louws, J.; Wiers, R.W. Online gaming addiction? Motives predict addictive play behavior in massively multiplayer online role-playing games. Cyberpsychol. Behav. Soc. Netw. 2012, 15, 480–485. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Females n = 118 | Males n = 86 | Total n = 204 | 14–15 Years n = 101 | 16–17 Years n = 68 | 18–19 Years n = 35 | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
BODY IMAGE CONCERNS | Dysmorphic Symptoms | 47.14 (11.82) | 35.97 (9.82) | 42.43 (12.31) | 41.58 (11.26) | 41.90 (13.08) | 45.89 (13.40) |
Symptom Interference | 7.37 (3.40) | 5.79 (2.20) | 6.71 (3.05) | 6.51 (2.50) | 6.34 (3.28) | 7.97 (3.76) | |
Total | 54.50 (14.33) | 41.76 (11.14) | 49.13 (14.5) | 48.10 (12.78) | 48.24 (15.52) | 53.86 (16.48) | |
SOCIAL MEDIA ADDICTION | Salience | 6.70 (2.73) | 6.29 (2.67) | 6.51 (2.70) | 6.51 (2.69) | 6.50 (2.61) | 6.54 (2.96) |
Tolerance | 6.89 (3.07) | 5.97 (2.66) | 6.50 (2.94) | 6.03 (2.89) | 6.94 (2.82) | 7.00 (3.15) | |
Mood Modification | 5.99 (2.92) | 5.24 (2.41) | 5.68 (2.74) | 5.43 (2.41) | 5.69 (2.81) | 6.37 (3.39) | |
Relapse | 5.76 (2.98) | 4.60 (2.39) | 5.27 (2.80) | 4.81 (2.19) | 6.13 (3.41) | 4.91 (2.77) | |
Withdrawal | 4.85 (2.35) | 4.15 (2.25) | 4.55 (2.33) | 4.27 (2.12) | 4.72 (2.25) | 5.06 (2.93) | |
Conflict | 5.63 (2.73) | 4.63 (1.59) | 5.21 (2.37) | 4.98 (2.11) | 5.38 (2.24) | 5.51 (3.18) | |
Total | 35.78 (12.69) | 30.88 (10.82) | 33.71 (12.15) | 32.10 (10.97) | 35.37 (12.66) | 35.40 (13.98) | |
INTERNET ADDICTION | 43.65 (10.65) | 39.51 (10.18) | 41.91 (10.63) | 41.28 (9.13) | 41.78 (11.12) | 43.97 (13.42) | |
EMOTIONAL–BEHAVIORAL FUNCTIONING | Internalizing Problems | 20.64 (9.08) | 14.33 (7.74) | 17.98 (9.08) | 16.75 (8.77) | 17.47 (8.89) | 22.49 (9.16) |
Externalizing Problems | 10.80 (5.85) | 11.77 (7.33) | 11.21 (6.53) | 9.51 (5.74) | 12.79 (7.21) | 13.00 (6.19) | |
Total | 51.59 (19.79) | 46.06 (20.39) | 49.26 (20.18) | 45.60 (19.70) | 50.04 (19.64) | 58.29 (20.15) |
BIC | SMA | IA | INT | EXT | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
BIC | - | 0.379 ** | 0.378 ** | 0.519 ** | 0.238 ** |
SMA | - | - | 0.714 ** | 0.204 ** | 0.156 * |
IA | - | - | - | 0.287 ** | 0.220 ** |
BIC | SMA | IA | INT | EXT | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Females | |||||
BIC | - | 0.318 ** | 0.276 ** | 0.366 ** | 0.280 ** |
SMA | - | - | 0.687 ** | 0.127 | 0.198 * |
IA | - | - | - | 0.164 | 0.260 ** |
Males | |||||
BIC | - | 0.361 ** | 0.442 ** | 0.585 ** | 0.349 ** |
SMA | - | - | 0.730 ** | 0.185 | 0.151 |
IA | - | - | - | 0.368 ** | 0.220 * |
BIC | SMA | IA | INT | EXT | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
14–15 Years | |||||
BIC | - | 0.368 ** | 0.379 ** | 0.465 ** | 0.197 ** |
SMA | - | - | 0.642 ** | 0.181 | 0.104 |
IA | - | - | - | 0.248 * | 0.215 * |
16–17 years | |||||
BIC | - | 0.421 ** | 0.480 ** | 0.609 ** | 0.309 * |
SMA | - | - | 0.782 ** | 0.280 * | −0.021 |
IA | - | - | - | 0.315 ** | 0.168 |
18–19 years | |||||
BIC | - | 0.319 | 0.190 | 0.410 * | 0.123 |
SMA | - | - | 0.736 ** | 0.068 | 0.480 ** |
IA | - | - | - | 0.271 | 0.303 |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Mesce, M.; Cerniglia, L.; Cimino, S. Body Image Concerns: The Impact of Digital Technologies and Psychopathological Risks in a Normative Sample of Adolescents. Behav. Sci. 2022, 12, 255. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs12080255
Mesce M, Cerniglia L, Cimino S. Body Image Concerns: The Impact of Digital Technologies and Psychopathological Risks in a Normative Sample of Adolescents. Behavioral Sciences. 2022; 12(8):255. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs12080255
Chicago/Turabian StyleMesce, Martina, Luca Cerniglia, and Silvia Cimino. 2022. "Body Image Concerns: The Impact of Digital Technologies and Psychopathological Risks in a Normative Sample of Adolescents" Behavioral Sciences 12, no. 8: 255. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs12080255
APA StyleMesce, M., Cerniglia, L., & Cimino, S. (2022). Body Image Concerns: The Impact of Digital Technologies and Psychopathological Risks in a Normative Sample of Adolescents. Behavioral Sciences, 12(8), 255. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs12080255