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Environments
Volume 10
Issue 7
10.3390/environments10070119
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Review

The Impact of Air Pollution on Stone Materials

by
Silvestro Antonio Ruffolo
1,*,
Mauro Francesco La Russa
1,
Natalia Rovella
2 and
Michela Ricca
1
1
Department of Biology, Ecology and Earth Sciences (DiBEST), University of Calabria, Arcavacata di Rende, 87036 Cosenza, Italy
2
Institute on Membrane Technology, National Research Council (ITM-CNR), Via P. Bucci 17/C, 87036 Rende, Italy
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Environments 2023, 10(7), 119; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments10070119
Submission received: 8 June 2023 / Revised: 5 July 2023 / Accepted: 6 July 2023 / Published: 10 July 2023
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Abstract

Air pollution can have a significant impact on stone materials used in monuments, buildings, and sculptures. Sulfur and nitrogen oxides are particularly harmful pollutants, especially in carbonate stones. These oxides, reacting with moisture in the air, result in the formation of acids able to erode the stone surface and gradually compromise its structural integrity. The acids can also combine with airborne particulate matter, heavy metals, and salts, leading to the development of black crusts. These not only have detrimental effects on the stone’s integrity but also affect the original appearance of the surfaces, threatening the conservation of important monuments and buildings. This review discusses the characteristics of black crusts and their relation to the environment and stone materials.
Keywords: air pollution; stone degradation; black crusts air pollution; stone degradation; black crusts

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MDPI and ACS Style

Ruffolo, S.A.; La Russa, M.F.; Rovella, N.; Ricca, M. The Impact of Air Pollution on Stone Materials. Environments 2023, 10, 119. https://doi.org/10.3390/environments10070119

AMA Style

Ruffolo SA, La Russa MF, Rovella N, Ricca M. The Impact of Air Pollution on Stone Materials. Environments. 2023; 10(7):119. https://doi.org/10.3390/environments10070119

Chicago/Turabian Style

Ruffolo, Silvestro Antonio, Mauro Francesco La Russa, Natalia Rovella, and Michela Ricca. 2023. "The Impact of Air Pollution on Stone Materials" Environments 10, no. 7: 119. https://doi.org/10.3390/environments10070119

APA Style

Ruffolo, S. A., La Russa, M. F., Rovella, N., & Ricca, M. (2023). The Impact of Air Pollution on Stone Materials. Environments, 10(7), 119. https://doi.org/10.3390/environments10070119

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