Climate Change Adaptation through Renewable Energy: The Cases of Australia, Canada, and the United Kingdom

Abstract

In recent years, climate change has escalated significantly, with forecasts indicating that this trend will further accelerate in the future. Renewable energy systems play a crucial role in global efforts to mitigate climate change due to their minimal greenhouse gas emissions. These systems also have the potential to facilitate the energy sector’s adaptation to climate change, given their decentralized nature, which enhances the resilience of energy infrastructure to extreme climate events. Nevertheless, existing literature predominantly focuses on their role in global mitigation efforts, often overlooking their significant adaptation capacity, particularly as reflected in national policies. This study seeks to bridge this gap through a qualitative examination of how renewable energy is incorporated into climate change adaptation policies in three countries: Australia, Canada, and the United Kingdom. It highlights a growing awareness of the role of renewable energy within these countries’ adaptation policies. However, while there is consensus on the importance of policy factors such as local focus, research initiatives, and risk assessment in utilizing renewable energy for adaptation, this study reveals that the actual deployment of renewable energy remains largely centered on mitigation efforts, partly neglecting crucial adaptation needs in the energy sector, such as geographical and technological diversification.

1. Introduction

There has been a significant increase in climate change in recent years, with projections suggesting this will accelerate further in the future [1,2,3]. The impacts of climate change encompass a wide range of effects, including extreme variations in temperature and precipitation, as well as floods, droughts, fires, and other extreme events [4,5,6]. For many years, efforts to cope with climate change and its accompanying effects were primarily driven by mitigation-oriented strategies [7]. Mitigation strategies attempt to reduce the physical effects of climate change via various means; the most popular among them is the reduction in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions [8], a significant portion of which is produced by fossil fuel-based energy systems [9,10,11]. Thus, renewable energy (RE) systems, which produce little to no GHG, have emerged as popular energy alternatives in global efforts to mitigate climate change [12,13,14].

In recent years, another notable group of strategies for coping with climate change emerged—adaptation strategies [15,16,17]. Such strategies focus on enabling systems, institutions, humans, and organisms to adapt to potential harm, take advantage of opportunities, and respond to climate change outcomes [18,19,20]. In particular, adaptation strategies in the energy sector aim to minimize the risks posed by climate change to energy infrastructure, often while leveraging RE technologies to enhance system resilience at the national level [21,22,23]. By deploying decentralized RE systems like solar and wind, which are less reliant on centralized infrastructure, adaptation strategies address vulnerabilities to climate-related events such as floods, storms, and extreme temperatures [24,25]. This approach also allows for diversification of energy sources, which strengthens the resilience of energy systems and reduces the impact of climate disruptions [26,27].

Despite the acknowledged potential of RE in climate change adaptation efforts in the energy sector, specifically at the national level [24,25,26,27], the existing literature largely overlooks this capacity, instead primarily concentrating on RE’s contribution to global mitigation endeavors [28,29,30,31]. Consequently, while the literature has examined the concepts of RE diffusion [32,33,34] and climate change adaptation [35,36,37] independently, the intricate interaction between these two concepts remains largely unexplored, particularly in the framework of national policies. This lacuna is surprising given the explicit appeal to investigate further how various forms of RE can facilitate climate change adaptation in different energy sectors across the globe [38,39]. In particular, recognizing the critical contribution of RE to adaptation efforts, the International Renewable Energy Agency has called for experts to examine the role of RE in national adaptation policies [40]. As the urgent need to address climate change intensifies, the demand for clean and sustainable energy amplifies [41], highlighting the importance of a comprehensive exploration of RE’s potential to support climate change adaptation efforts alongside its extensively discussed contribution to mitigation endeavors.

The present study aims to address this lacuna by investigating the involvement of RE in climate change adaptation efforts, specifically in the energy sector, as reflected in national policies. To achieve this aim, it examines three distinct countries that incorporate RE in their climate change adaptation policies: (1) Australia, (2) Canada, and (3) the United Kingdom (UK). The selection of Australia, Canada, and the UK as case studies is driven by their distinct geographical, population, and infrastructural characteristics, offering valuable comparative insights into the use of RE for climate change adaptation. Australia, with its vast landmass, arid climate in many regions, and low population density, faces unique challenges in deploying RE in remote regions, where the decentralized nature of RE is particularly advantageous. Canada, though similarly expansive, has colder climatic conditions and different energy infrastructure, with a strong reliance on large-scale hydroelectricity in remote areas. In contrast, the United Kingdom, a densely populated island nation with a temperate climate, faces challenges due to relatively limited land availability and a more centralized energy grid. These differences in geography, population distribution, climate, and infrastructure provide a robust framework for analyzing how RE policies can be tailored to address local adaptation (and mitigation) needs.

Through these cases, this study aims to draw comprehensive conclusions regarding the role of RE in national adaptation policies. The primary contribution of this study, therefore, is a comparative demonstration of how RE is incorporated into national adaptation policies, emphasizing significant merits and limitations in this regard [42]. In this context, it highlights the relations between the actual deployment of RE and these policies while considering various climate change-related concerns [43]. Ultimately, the findings of this study can assist decision-makers in various regions in making informed choices regarding incorporating RE into their adaptation policies while aligning with climate change mitigation objectives [44].

This study proceeds as follows: The following section reviews the existing literature regarding the role of RE in addressing climate change through both mitigation and adaptation measures. The third section then presents the qualitative methodology employed in this study, which centers on a comparative case study analysis. The fourth section provides detailed insights into the three case studies, focusing on the utilization of RE in climate change adaptation policies. Lastly, the final section discusses the outcomes of the case studies while highlighting the study’s key contributions and suggesting avenues for future research.

2. Coping with Climate Change through Renewable Energy

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) defines climate change as “a change in the state of the climate that can be identified (e.g., by using statistical tests) by changes in the mean and/or the variability of its properties and that persists for an extended period, typically decades or longer” [9]. Climate change is largely caused by the presence of GHG in Earth’s atmosphere, trapping the sun’s warmth in the lower atmosphere. The over-accumulation of GHG leads to an accelerated climate change process [45,46,47] with many physical effects, including changes in the average and variance of precipitation, temperatures, and other measures [48,49]. Climate change has also led to an increase in extreme climatic events such as floods, droughts, and fires [4,5,6]. These effects are not distributed uniformly across the globe, meaning that the impact is different in various regions [50,51].

Over the years, global initiatives to address climate change and its associated impacts have predominantly centered on mitigation strategies [52] that aim to alleviate the physical consequences of climate change through various approaches, the most popular being the reduction in GHG emissions [53]. This can be achieved via various means, including adopting cleaner transportation methods, curbing pollution from factories, and promoting sustainable agricultural practices [7]. A significant portion of GHG emissions stems from conventional electricity systems, particularly power plants that rely on fossil fuel; thus, replacing these systems with alternative energy sources, commonly referred to as RE, has become a well-established approach to mitigating GHG [12,13,14].

RE encompasses energy sources such as solar, wind, hydroelectric, biomass, and other technologies that are defined scientifically as deriving from non-depletable natural resources, or more simply as any energy source not based on fossil fuels such as coal, oil, or natural gas [54,55,56]. RE systems have exceptionally low or zero GHG emission rates during their operational phase, making them a prominent tool for mitigating the effects of climate change [12,13,14]. Yet, it is important to recognize that emissions can also occur throughout the entire life cycle, including extraction, manufacturing, and disposal. The decentralized nature of RE systems further allows for localized energy production, minimizing transmission losses and reducing emissions associated with long-distance energy transportation [25]. Furthermore, adopting RE in the transportation sector, such as electric vehicles and biofuels, offers additional avenues for reducing emissions and achieving a low-carbon future [57].

Over the past few years, there has been a growing recognition that adaptation constitutes an additional strategy for addressing climate change [15,16,17], driven by the realization among states and global organizations that mitigation policy tools alone cannot completely eliminate the physical effects of climate change [58,59]. Thus, a more effective approach entails not only addressing the physical impacts but also considering the social effects of climate change. To this end, various mechanisms have been employed, such as adapting local economies, industries, and agricultural systems to new environmental conditions [37]. Adaptation efforts are thus tailored to address specific local challenges; indeed, each region requires a distinct approach to climate change adaptation [17,58,60]. Consequently, climate change adaptation aims to enable systems, institutions, humans, and organisms to adapt to potential risks, capitalize on opportunities, and respond to the outcomes of climate change [18,19,20].

The deployment of RE technologies also plays a crucial role in supporting climate change adaptation efforts, particularly in the energy sector [21,22,23,44]. Climate change is associated with several notable events that can have potentially negative consequences for energy infrastructure, as exemplified in

Table 1. Climate hazards, energy infrastructure risks, and RE adaptation contributions.

Climate-Related Events	Potential Consequences	Examples of RE Contributions to Adaptation
Flooding of Site	Possible generation unit shutdown; water damage to infrastructure; pipeline fracture due to erosion.	Decentralized RE systems provide localized power generation even if a central facility is compromised.
Flooding of Access Routes to the Site	Commodity supply disruption; insufficient staff to maintain safe plant operation; partial or complete shutdown.	Off-grid RE systems reduce reliance on centralized grids, ensuring energy supply despite access disruptions.
Storm Surges	Commodity supply disruption; partial or complete shutdown.	RE systems positioned in diverse locations reduce dependency on a single facility.
Extremely High Temperatures	Degradation of plant efficiency; potential for ‘unit trips’ at extreme temperatures.	Solar energy systems are often resilient to high temperatures, providing energy without the need for water cooling.
Drought and Low River Flow: Water Availability	Low river flow may result in operational limitations or water quality issues.	RE systems like solar and wind diversify energy sources, reducing reliance on water-intensive energy production (e.g., hydroelectric power).
Extreme Snowfall; Extremely Low Temperatures	Operational limitations due to blocked access routes or disrupted traffic systems; performance constraints.	Solar energy systems, particularly rooftop installations, continue generating power in snowbound areas.
Extreme Winds	High wind speeds can damage site equipment and create safety risks.	Modern wind turbines are designed to withstand high winds, and geographically diverse wind farms ensure reliability.
Fires	Possible generation unit shutdown; irreparable infrastructure damage.	Distributed solar systems can maintain power generation even if a fire affects a specific area.
Subsidence/Landslide	Damage to assets, infrastructure, and pipelines.	Decentralized RE systems, such as wind and solar, reduce reliance on vulnerable infrastructure like pipelines.

below [61]. Table 1 further outlines examples of the contributions of RE technologies in addressing such climate-related events, highlighting how RE systems can maintain energy supply even in the face of these disruptions.

As shown in Table 1, the deployment of RE can address climate-related events while promoting adaptation efforts in the energy sector. A key aspect of using RE for climate change adaptation lies in enhancing energy independence and resilience [62]. Due to their decentralized nature, RE sources offer flexibility in installed capacities, geographic diversification, and the operation of both grid-connected and off-grid facilities [63,64,65]. By adopting RE systems, such as solar panels and wind turbines, governments, businesses, and communities can reduce reliance on centralized power stations, which are more vulnerable to climate-related disruptions [66]. This decentralization allows for localized energy production, ensuring that critical services remain operational during extreme weather events [24,25,67]. Moreover, several RE technologies are specifically adapted to particular climate-related effects, such as solar energy systems performing efficiently in hot temperatures or wind turbines designed to withstand extreme winds. Furthermore, the technological diversification of RE sources—solar, wind, hydro, geothermal, and others—further supports adaptation efforts. By reducing dependence on a single energy source, this approach decreases the risk of supply disruptions caused by climate-related events, thereby enhancing energy security and stability [26,27,68].

Many countries worldwide consider RE a crucial tool for addressing climate change in both mitigation and adaptation efforts, leading to the implementation of diverse policies [69,70,71,72]. While climate change mitigation strategies, particularly those involving RE, primarily focus on global considerations such as reducing global GHG emissions [73], adaptation efforts tend to be more nationally oriented, requiring unique approaches tailored to each state [38]. Within this context, scholars have examined policies designed to incorporate RE to mitigate climate change. These studies explore the formulation and implementation of different policies contributing to the reduction in GHG emissions and efforts to mitigate climate change using RE [29,30,73,74]. In contrast, assessing the contribution of RE to adaptation efforts is often complex and sometimes practically unfeasible, given the unpredictable nature of future events [18,75,76]. Hence, comparatively less attention has been devoted to the integration of RE for adaptation purposes, specifically as reflected in national policies. The following section introduces the methodology devised to examine this issue.

3. Methodology

To examine the role of RE as part of national policies addressing climate change adaptation of the energy sector, this study explores three distinct case studies of countries that incorporate RE into their climate change adaptation efforts: (1) Australia, (2) Canada, and (3) the UK. These case studies were chosen, first and foremost, because all three countries’ official climate policies acknowledge the significance of RE as a means of climate change adaptation. This suggests that decision-makers therein recognize the potential of RE for adapting to climate change. The comparative case study approach was selected to examine the role of RE in national climate change adaptation policies across three countries with diverse geographical, climatic, population, and infrastructural contexts. Australia and Canada, both characterized by vast land areas, low population densities, and varied climatic conditions, offer unique insights into the challenges of deploying RE in remote regions where decentralized energy sources play a critical role. Australia, with a dry climate in many of its regions, and Canada, with its colder conditions, face different environmental challenges that influence RE deployment. The United Kingdom, with a significantly higher population density, a temperate climate, and more limited land resources, provides a contrasting example of RE integration in a more centralized grid. This selection of case studies allows for a comprehensive analysis of how RE policies are shaped by geographical, climatic, demographic, and infrastructural factors, contributing to the broader understanding of RE’s role in climate change adaptation [77].

The analysis herein is based on a combination of multiple data sources to validate the findings, also known as triangulation, a method widely used in qualitative studies [78,79]. Cross-verifying information obtained through various sources enhances the credibility and reliability of the case studies. The data utilized draw on the following sources: (1) Official policies of Australia, Canada, and the UK; (2) Regulations and data published by relevant ministries in the respective countries; (3) International and local position papers and reports pertaining to RE and climate change adaptation in the target countries; (4) Academic studies concerning RE systems and climate change adaptation in the countries examined; (5) Online newspaper articles from each of the three countries.

The data collected from the different sources were analyzed based on a policy case study approach [80]. This approach involves analyzing policy interventions or programs by examining multiple sources of data to understand the policy’s framework, aims, and context [81]. Based on this approach, a comparison of the three cases was conducted, also known as comparative case studies [82], facilitating the discovery of policy variations across contexts [83]. The comparison itself was based on a thematic analysis, which involves identifying, analyzing, and interpreting patterns or themes within qualitative data, highlighting similarities and differences [84]. Specifically, characteristics related to the design and implementation of the three countries’ adaptation policies vis-à-vis RE were compared. Hence, the presentation of the results is based on the following steps: (1) Providing general information about each country’s climatic conditions, focusing on climate change concerns; (2) Presenting an overview of each country’s policy on climate change adaptation, specifically focusing on the role of RE in supporting the adaptation of the local energy sector; (3) Exploring the actual deployment of RE infrastructure as part of the aforementioned policy while presenting the main limitations. Lastly, the previous steps facilitate the comparison of the three cases in the final section, identifying similarities, differences, and patterns, thus offering valuable insights.

4. Case Studies

The following section introduces the three case studies. For each country, the main climate concerns are presented, followed by an outline of adaptation policy and RE’s role within it, and concluding with the deployment of RE and its limitations.

4.1. Australia

4.1.1. Climate Concerns in Australia

Australia is characterized by a range of climates, from tropical in the north to temperate in the south, the result of its significant size: 7.688 million square kilometers. The interior is arid, featuring expansive deserts, while the coastal areas are affected by the surrounding oceans [85]. This diversity makes Australia particularly sensitive to shifts in climate patterns. One of the foremost climate concerns in Australia is the escalating temperatures experienced across the continent—as of 2023, Australia’s average temperature had increased on average by 1.44 °C since national records began in 1910. The country’s long-term trend of rising temperatures has also led to more frequent and intense heatwaves—very high monthly maximum temperatures that occurred 2% of the time in 1960–1989, occurred 4% of the time during 1990–2004, rising to 12% of the time during 2005–2019 [86,87]. The changing climate is exacerbating the frequency and severity of droughts in Australia, impacting agriculture and water resources, and increasing the risk of bushfires [88]. Indeed, hotter and drier conditions, coupled with prolonged droughts, have generated ideal conditions for large and more frequent wildfires, as indicated by the Forest Fire Danger Index for the years 1950–2020 [89]. Other extreme weather events, including storms, floods, and cyclones, have become more frequent and intense, also causing damage to infrastructure and disrupting communities [90].

Changing rainfall patterns likewise presents a complex challenge, with some regions experiencing increased rainfall and intense storms leading to flooding, while others face reduced rainfall and prolonged dry periods, contributing to drought conditions. For instance, the intensity of heavy rainfall events in the country has increased by 10% or more since 1979 [91]. Coastal regions, home to a significant portion of Australia’s population, are particularly vulnerable to rises in sea level, leading to increased coastal erosion and saltwater intrusion, endangering local population and infrastructure—while the global mean sea level has risen by around 25 cm since 1880, this statistic varies across the Australian region, with the largest increases in the north and southeast of the continent [89]. At the same time, water scarcity is a growing concern, with reduced rainfall and increased evaporation contributing to challenges in water supply for agriculture, urban areas, industries, infrastructures, and ecosystems [92].

4.1.2. Adaptation Policy in Australia

Australia is proactively tackling the multifaceted challenges posed by climate change, especially in terms of adaptation, with the National Climate Resilience and Adaptation Strategy (NCRAS) constituting a focal point. The most recent national strategy, issued by the Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water, refers to the years 2021–2025. This robust framework, intricately designed to enhance resilience and mitigate vulnerabilities, places particular emphasis on key sectors such as health, agriculture, infrastructure, and ecosystems. It currently focuses on three main objectives: driving investment and action through collaboration, improving climate information and services, and assessing progress and improving over time [93].

To implement adaptation initiatives as part of the aforementioned national strategy (NCRAS), the Australian government established a special funding program for adaptation (and mitigation) that allocates funding for research, innovation, and community-based projects designed to enhance resilience to climate change impacts [93]. In particular recognizing the significance of resilient infrastructure, Australia has initiated programs like the Critical Infrastructure Resilience Strategy. This strategy focuses on ensuring that critical infrastructure, such as roads, energy systems, and water supply, can withstand the impacts of various hazards, including those related to the changing climate [94]. In this framework, the National Climate Change Adaptation Research Facility (NCCARF) plays a vital role in supporting adaptation research. By collaborating with various stakeholders, including government agencies, NCCARF provides valuable information, tools, and resources for informed decision-making in the face of climate change [95].

Community engagement forms the bedrock of effective adaptation, with specific programs relying on the NCRAS implemented to educate and involve communities in understanding and preparing for the impacts of climate change. This grassroots involvement ensures that adaptation measures are not only effective but also tailored to the unique needs and perspectives of local populations [96]. Recognizing the wealth of Indigenous knowledge, Australia is specifically working towards incorporating traditional practices and perspectives into adaptation strategies [97]. In this context, individual states and territories within Australia have implemented their own bespoke initiatives, tailoring adaptive strategies to the specific climate risks and vulnerabilities unique to each area while also addressing local communities’ needs [98]. Australia likewise actively participates in international collaboration, contributing to global initiatives to address climate change, which are mostly mitigation-oriented but also vis-à-vis adaptation issues [99].

As part of its broader climate change adaptation efforts, Australia prioritizes the adaptation of its energy sector through the integration of RE sources. In this context, the NCRAS refers, in general lines, to the role of RE in the country’s adaptation policy [93]. Although this primary strategy offers limited information, auxiliary initiatives such as the National Renewable Energy Supply Chain Action Plan concentrate predominantly on energy-related aspects, providing more details about the role of RE in adaptation efforts. This supplementary plan furnishes a more comprehensive roadmap for the decentralized transition to RE, underscoring the imperative of technological and geographical diversification in fostering a sustainable and resilient energy future for Australia [100].

Australia is further committed to accelerating the transition to RE through initiatives like the National Energy Transformation Partnership. Established in 2022, this partnership serves as a framework for action toward achieving net-zero emissions, bringing together the central government, various provinces, local communities, and the private sector. The partnership prioritizes the deployment of dispatchable RE and storage projects, thereby strengthening the resilience of the energy sector while reducing its carbon footprint [101]. In this context, community engagement and empowerment are also integral to Australia’s energy adaptation strategy using RE, as efforts to engage with regional and remote communities, including First Nations, aim to ensure their participation in the transition to RE [102].

A crucial aspect of Australia’s adaptation efforts is utilizing climate information projects to inform the integration of RE into the electricity grid. Projects such as the Electricity Sector Climate Information Project provide essential data regarding climate variables, enabling informed decisions in planning and adapting energy systems to withstand extreme weather events and other climate-related risks [103]. Integrated System Planning is pivotal in this adaptation strategy. The Australian Energy Market Operator (AEMO) utilizes insights from climate projects to inform electricity system planning, including the development of the Integrated System Plan [104].

4.1.3. RE Deployment in Australia

The deployment of RE in Australia primarily aims to achieve mitigation goals. This is mostly reflected in the country’s ambitious RE targets, which aim to increase electricity using RE from the current figure of 32% to 100% by 2050 [105]. Australia’s integration of RE is also driven by its strategy of aligning with adaptation goals, following programs like the National Renewable Energy Supply Chain Action Plan or the National Energy Transformation Partnership. However, despite efforts to enhance energy resilience and adapt to climate change, criticism has been voiced regarding the success and scope of these efforts, specifically the implementation of projects across diverse locations and using different technologies [106]. In this context, solar power, a significant component of Australia’s energy portfolio, accounted for only 13% of the country’s electricity generation as of 2022, despite the country’s suitable conditions for this technology. This includes, first and foremost, large-scale solar farms strategically located in regions with abundant solar irradiance, like Queensland, New South Wales, and South Australia [107]. In addition, more than 30% of Australian households now have rooftop solar PV, with a combined capacity exceeding 11 GW. These solar farms not only reduce GHG emissions but also enhance adaptation by providing decentralized and resilient energy sources [108].

Wind power, another cornerstone of Australia’s RE mix, accounted for more than 10% of the country’s electricity generation as of 2022. This energy source is harnessed through strategically located wind farms, primarily in regions with strong and consistent wind patterns, such as South Australia, Victoria, and Western Australia [107]. These wind farms contribute to adaptation by providing reliable and sustainable energy sources while reducing reliance on fossil fuels. Additionally, wind power enhances resilience by supporting grid stability and providing energy during extreme weather events when other sources may be compromised [109]. Hydroelectric power, historically significant in Australia, is concentrated in Tasmania and the Snowy Mountains region of New South Wales, accounting for more than 6% of the country’s electricity generation as of 2022. Large-scale hydroelectric projects in these areas also provide reliable and significant energy to isolated settlements and communities [107]. Such facilities support additional RE integration and grid stability, contributing to adaptation efforts by offering dispatchable energy generation and balancing fluctuations in RE output [110]. Finally, bioenergy projects utilizing biomass and organic waste materials are scattered across agricultural regions and areas with abundant biomass resources, accounting for more than 1% of the country’s electricity generation as of 2022 [107]. These technologies contribute to adaptation by providing a flexible and dispatchable energy source that complements intermittent RE sources like solar and wind.

Nevertheless, Australia also faces various challenges in deploying RE across the country to support its adaptation efforts. Policy and regulatory uncertainty further complicate Australia’s RE transition, mainly due to issues related to changing payments and compensation schemes. Inconsistent government policies at the federal and state levels create ambiguity for investors and developers, potentially deterring crucial investments in RE projects and their use for both mitigation and adaptation purposes [111]. Additionally, obtaining financing for large-scale RE ventures in Australia can be challenging, particularly for smaller entities, due to perceived risks and uncertainties [112]. Another significant obstacle is the country’s diverse geography, which presents a range of RE potentials across different regions, specifically when considering intermittency issues of RE sources. While some areas boast ample solar and wind resources, others may lack sufficient RE options. This geographical variability necessitates tailored approaches to RE deployment, posing logistical complexities and thus reducing the ability to distribute RE production according to adaptation goals [113]. Moreover, the need for substantial upgrades to Australia’s transmission infrastructure is another pressing concern that also impedes efforts to achieve decentralized and resilient RE production. The current grid may not adequately support the transmission of RE from remote generation sites to urban centers, hindering the integration of RE sources into the national energy mix [114].

4.2. Canada

4.2.1. Climate Concerns in Canada

The climate challenges that Canada faces are deeply intertwined with its unique geography and diverse ecosystems, influenced by its enormous size of 9.985 million square kilometers. Spanning from the Atlantic to the Pacific Oceans, Canada encompasses several climates, from the temperate regions of the south to the Arctic tundra in the north. The country’s geography includes expansive forests, mountainous terrains, and extensive coastlines, contributing to a rich tapestry of biodiversity [85]. One of Canada’s primary climate concerns is the significant rise in temperatures at a rate faster than the global average: from 1948 to 2022, the trend in annual average temperature departures demonstrates 1.9 °C of warming over that period. This trend has far-reaching consequences, influencing precipitation patterns, intensifying extreme weather events, and disrupting ecosystems, infrastructure activity, and living patterns across the nation [115]. The Arctic region in Canada faces a particular, distinctive challenge with the accelerated melting of ice endangering communities and infrastructure—the mean rate of mass loss from prominent glaciers from 2005 onwards is nearly five times greater than the 1963–2004 average [116]. Furthermore, coastal regions in Canada, particularly those in the Atlantic provinces and the Arctic, are grappling with the implications of rising sea levels, which continue to accelerate—according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Atlantic Canada is expecting a 1-m increase in sea level by 2100 and 2 m or more by 2150 [117].

In general, Canada is experiencing extreme weather events at a heightened frequency, including heatwaves, storms, and heavy rainfall. These events can result in widespread flooding, landslides, and disruptions to communities and critical infrastructure, necessitating comprehensive risk management strategies [118]. At the same time, water scarcity, influenced by changing precipitation patterns and increased evaporation, is a concern in certain regions. For instance, more than five critical droughts have occurred in the Canadian Prairies during the past 100 years, with their frequency significantly increasing over time [119]. The convergence of warmer temperatures, prolonged droughts, and changing vegetation patterns creates conditions conducive to more frequent and severe wildfires. Indeed, wildfires have become a growing concern—climate change more than doubled the likelihood of extreme fire weather conditions in Canada from 1973 to 2023 [120].

4.2.2. Adaptation Policy in Canada

Canada actively addresses climate change adaptation through a comprehensive National Adaptation Strategy [121]. Based on a long-term vision for tackling climate change, the National Adaptation Strategy established goals for 2050, objectives for 2030, and short-term targets backed by a concrete adaptation action plan for the central government [121]. The government’s action plan refers to practical government measures vis-à-vis adaptation-related aspects, including disaster resilience, health and well-being, nature and biodiversity, and infrastructure, as well as the economy and workers [122].

Canada also conducts regular assessments to identify and prioritize risks associated with climate change as part of the Federal Adaptation Policy Framework. This systematic process informs the adaptation strategy, ensuring that resources are allocated where they are most needed and addressing the country’s diverse climate challenges [123]. In this framework, critical infrastructure resilience is a key priority in Canada’s adaptation strategy, led by the infrastructure department (Infrastructure Canada) at the Ministry of Housing, Infrastructure and Communities. Rigorous measures are being implemented to adapt transportation systems, infrastructure, and buildings to withstand the impacts of extreme weather events and changing climate conditions [124]. In this context, ongoing research, specifically in collaboration with the Canadian Climate Institute, the National Research Council of Canada (NRC), and the Standards Council of Canada (SCC), informs adaptation policies and monitors changes in temperature, precipitation, and the frequency of extreme events [124].

To address region-specific challenges, the central government of Canada collaborates with provinces and territories as part of the Pan-Canadian Framework on Clean Growth and Climate Change. This partnership aims to tailor adaptation strategies to local contexts, ensuring that the diverse impacts and vulnerabilities across different regions are adequately addressed [125]. Indeed, community engagement forms a cornerstone of Canada’s adaptation efforts, guided by the Federal Adaptation Policy Framework [123]. Initiatives and programs aim to engage communities in understanding and preparing for the impacts of climate change. Public education campaigns and local resilience-building projects empower communities to participate actively in adaptation processes [126]. Canada also engages in international collaborations to address climate change in terms of both mitigation and adaptation: the country has doubled its own international climate finance commitment to USD 4 billion over five years (2021–2026), 40% of it dedicated to adaptation [127].

As part of its broader climate change efforts, Canada specifically incorporates RE into its energy sector adaptation policy through various programs and strategies. Within the National Adaptation Strategy, RE constitutes a tool for enhancing energy security and building resilience to climate change impacts. However, the strategy does not provide significant details regarding how to achieve these aims [121]. Recognizing RE’s role in enhancing Canada’s resilience to climate change impacts, the Pan-Canadian Framework on Clean Growth and Climate Change provides a more detailed plan. While primarily focused on mitigation efforts, the framework includes measures to accelerate the deployment of RE infrastructure on the local level for adaptation and resilience purposes, among them financial incentives, regulatory reforms, and collaboration among different actors to diversify the energy mix and strengthen critical infrastructure, such as the electricity grid [125].

At the federal level, the Canadian government further established the Climate Adaptation and Resilience Program (CARP) and the Clean Energy for Rural and Remote Communities (CERRC) program. CARP provides funding and support for adaptation projects across the country, including measures to integrate RE into community resilience plans and invest in resilient energy systems [128]. CERRC focuses specifically on transitioning off-grid and diesel-dependent communities to clean energy, promoting the use of RE technologies to improve energy security and reduce reliance on fossil fuels [129]. Furthermore, Canada’s Indigenous Off-Diesel Initiative works with Indigenous and Northern communities to reduce diesel reliance and supports the development of RE projects tailored to local needs to increase their resilience to climate change [130].

Provincially, many regions have developed their own adaptation strategies that incorporate RE. Municipalities have also adopted community energy plans involving RE as a key component of climate resilience and adaptation. For example, the British Columbia Climate Preparedness and Adaptation Strategy [131] and the Quebec Climate Change Action Plan [132] include measures to enhance the resilience of RE infrastructure to climate change impacts, such as wildfires, droughts, and extreme weather events. Additionally, programs like the Climate Action Incentive Fund (CAIF) provide funding for projects in provinces and territories to reduce GHG emissions and enhance climate resilience, including initiatives related to RE infrastructure [133].

4.2.3. RE Deployment in Canada

Canada’s integration of RE is mostly driven by its ambition to diminish GHG emissions. This is reflected in the federal government’s aim: 90% RE-based electricity generation by 2030, reaching 100% by 2050 [134]. As of 2022, the country’s electricity generation is based on more than 70% RE [135]. Despite the significant integration of RE into its energy portfolio, Canada partly fails to address the adaptation standards determined by its different programs. As of 2022, more than 60% of the country’s electricity generation is based on a single RE technology, hydroelectric, which is often characterized by large-scale facilities [135]. The increased reliance on hydroelectricity reduces the diversity of Canada’s energy portfolio, exposing it to risks specific to this technology, such as droughts, sea-level rising, flooding, and more [136]. Nevertheless, leveraging the country’s abundant water resources, hydroelectric facilities, predominantly located in provinces such as British Columbia, Quebec, and Manitoba, support the electricity grid during periods of high demand or disruptions, contributing to resilience efforts [137].

Canada also uses other RE sources to increase its adaptation to climate change by implementing projects across diverse locations and technologies, with partial success. In addition to the widespread hydroelectric facilities, wind power projects are also strategically deployed across provinces rich in wind resources, including Ontario, Quebec, and Alberta, accounting for more than 6% of the country’s electricity generation as of 2022 [135]. These large-scale wind farms diversify the energy mix while promoting decentralized energy generation, thus enhancing resilience [138]. Solar power projects are also strategically concentrated in provinces with abundant solar irradiance, such as Ontario, Alberta, and British Columbia, albeit accounting for only 1% of the country’s electricity generation as of 2022 [135]. Through harnessing solar energy, Canada not only mitigates GHG emissions but also fosters resilience by decentralizing power generation [139]. Canada uses other RE sources, most notably biomass, to further strengthen adaptation strategies and support the electricity grid. Biomass projects utilize organic materials found in agricultural and forestry areas, diversifying energy sources and providing dispatchable power to stabilize the grid [140]; as of 2022, this accounted for more than 1.5% of the country’s electricity generation [135].

Beyond the extensive use of hydroelectric power, Canada faces several challenges in deploying other RE technologies for climate change adaptation. One significant challenge is providing RE solutions to remote and off-grid communities, particularly in northern regions, thus significantly reducing the energy resilience of such regions. Access to RE sources and grid infrastructure is limited in these areas, posing logistical and technological hurdles [129]. In addition, its vast size and diverse geography result in varying RE potential across regions. While some areas boast abundant wind, solar, or hydroelectric resources, others lack sufficient options, thus diminishing the ability to locate RE facilities in strategic locations for climate change adaptation [141]. Intermittency issues with RE sources, such as wind and solar power, present another obstacle, reducing the ability to deploy decentralized and diversified RE sources across the nation. Canada’s variable weather patterns exacerbate this challenge, making it difficult to maintain a reliable energy supply without adequate storage solutions [142,143]. Moreover, the existing energy infrastructure and grid networks require upgrading and expansion to accommodate large-scale RE projects or smaller projects in remote regions [144].

4.3. The UK

4.3.1. Climate Concerns in the UK

Nestled on the northwestern fringe of Europe, the climate of the UK, 243,610 square kilometers in size, is shaped by the Atlantic Ocean, North Sea, English Channel, and Irish Sea that surround the island. This also influences the UK’s weather patterns, which are characterized by a temperate climate with mild temperatures and relatively moderate rainfall throughout the year [85]. Nevertheless, the UK faces some climate concerns, each intricately connected to its unique geographic attributes. As temperatures across the globe continue to rise, the UK is not exempt from this trend: the average temperature during 1991–2020 was 0.9 °C warmer than the preceding 30 years (1961–1990) [145]. The impacts of this temperature rise are manifold, contributing to shifts in weather patterns, more frequent heatwaves, and alterations in precipitation, together posing multifaceted challenges to public health, agriculture, and infrastructure [146]. In particular, as temperatures rise, the UK contends with risks associated with extreme heatwaves, which affect vulnerable populations and infrastructure, especially [147].

Another aspect of climate change in the UK is the escalating frequency and intensity of extreme weather events. Heavy rainfall, storms, and flooding have become more prevalent, posing risks to infrastructure, communities, and ecosystems [148]. Coastal regions, in particular, defined by their low-lying landscapes, face a dual threat of sea level rise and increased flooding, underscoring the urgent need for coping strategies: around the UK coastline, recent rates of local geocentric mean sea-level rise have ranged from 3.0 mm per year to 5.2 mm per year from 1991 to 2020 [146]. The UK’s susceptibility to flooding is further compounded by changing precipitation patterns, particularly during the winter months. Critical infrastructures, from transportation networks to energy systems, are especially vulnerable to extreme weather events and sea level rise [149].

4.3.2. Adaptation Policy in the UK

Focusing on adaptation measures, the National Adaptation Programme (NAP) is the central component of the UK government’s strategy in this regard [150]. The current NAP, for the years 2023–2028, outlines the government’s approach to adapting to climate change impacts, covering sectors such as health, infrastructure, water resources, agriculture, and biodiversity. Some of the current program’s main aims address protecting the natural environment, supporting businesses in adapting to climate change, protecting buildings and their surroundings, safeguarding public health and communities, and mitigating international impacts on the UK. In particular, the NAP prioritizes resilience infrastructure and the integration of climate adaptation into policy and decision-making processes [150]. The UK places additional emphasis on ensuring the resilience of critical infrastructure in the face of climate change, with efforts being made by the National Infrastructure Commission (NIC), supervised by the Joint Committee on the National Security Strategy (JCNSS) on behalf of the UK Parliament [151]. This involves adapting transportation systems, energy infrastructure, and buildings to withstand extreme weather events and changing climate conditions, with a focus on long-term sustainability [152].

The Climate Change Act of 2008 established a legal framework mandating regular Climate Change Risk Assessments (CCRAs) to evaluate the current and future risks associated with climate change. This ongoing assessment informs adaptation planning and resource allocation, ensuring a targeted response to the most pressing challenges [153]. The Adaptation Reporting Power (ARP), also granted by the Climate Change Act, requires that specific sectors and organizations report on their plans to address climate risks and implement adaptation measures. These plans detail specific actions aimed at increasing resilience and managing climate risks effectively [154].

Moreover, the UK actively explores green finance initiatives as part of its official Green Financing Programme, aligning financial systems with climate goals and directing investments toward sustainable and climate-resilient projects, reaching GBP 10.5 billion in 2023 [155]. Such funding sources also support scientific research and monitoring programs, which constitute an integral component of the UK’s approach to adaptation, led by the governmental agency UK Research and Innovation [156]. In addition, community engagement is a central pillar of the UK’s adaptation strategy. Initiatives and programs aim to engage communities in understanding and preparing for the impacts of climate change. This includes public education campaigns and local resilience-building projects to empower communities at the grassroots level [157,158]. The UK likewise actively engages in international collaborations to address climate change, including via adaptation, by participating in global initiatives, sharing knowledge, and contributing to efforts to cope with the impacts of climate change [159].

In particular, the UK has implemented various programs and strategies to incorporate RE into its climate change adaptation efforts within the energy sector. The NAP entails general actions related to energy resilience, including enhancing the capacity of RE sources to withstand climate-related stresses and ensuring the reliability of energy supply in the face of changing environmental conditions, led by the Office of Gas and Electricity Markets (Ofgem), the Department for Energy Security and Net Zero (DESNZ), and the Distribution Network Operators (DNOs) [150]. Focusing on energy aspects, the Renewable Energy Roadmap provides a more detailed strategic framework for the development and deployment of RE technologies across the country. The roadmap outlines specific actions to enhance the resilience of RE infrastructure and systems to climate-related risks, such as extreme weather events and changes in resource availability [160]. In this context, the UK government promotes research and innovation in RE adaptation through initiatives like the Energy Innovation Program, which funds projects to develop technologies and solutions that will improve the resilience of RE infrastructure and systems [161].

The CCRA further assesses the risks posed by climate change, specifically addressing the energy sector. It guides policymakers and stakeholders in prioritizing actions to minimize the adverse impacts of climate change on the energy sector, focusing on RE [162]. Furthermore, as part of the ARP, the energy sector is required to report on adaptation actions and progress. Through the ARP, the government can monitor and evaluate the effectiveness of adaptation measures in the energy sector, identifying opportunities for further action to enhance resilience [163]. Moreover, the UK’s participation in international initiatives such as the Clean Energy Ministerial (CEM) [164] provides opportunities for collaboration and knowledge sharing on RE adaptation strategies. Through these platforms, the UK exchanges best practices and lessons learned with other countries facing similar challenges in adapting RE infrastructure to climate change impacts.

4.3.3. RE Deployment in the UK

The UK has integrated RE into its climate change coping efforts, particularly within the electricity generation sector, as part of its broader strategy to reduce GHG emissions. This integration aligns with the UK’s RE targets, which aim to transition towards a low-carbon economy and achieve Net Zero GHG emissions by 2050 [165]. As of 2022, the country’s electricity generation is based on almost 60% RE [166]. While the UK’s endeavors to deploy RE have been geared towards bolstering climate change adaptation, experts have criticized the lack of strict adherence to approved policies and the failure to deploy required RE technologies in strategic locations to increase the resilience of the energy sector [167]. Despite this criticism, notable efforts are underway to employ various RE facilities to enhance resilience and adapt to climate change, according to programs like the Renewable Energy Roadmap. First and foremost, wind energy plays an important role in the UK’s adaptation efforts, accounting for around 25% of the country’s electricity generation as of 2022 [166]. In this context, offshore wind farms in the North Sea, exemplified by the upcoming project of Hornsea and Dogger Bank, along with onshore wind farms in Scotland and Northern Ireland, contribute significantly to the energy mix, offering a reliable, renewable source of electricity and reducing the risk of widespread outages during climate-related emergencies [168].

Bioenergy and waste-to-energy technologies also play a crucial role in the UK’s RE portfolio and climate resilience efforts, accounting for around 12% of the country’s electricity generation as of 2022 [166]. These bioenergy sources contribute to decentralized energy production while also offering a renewable alternative to fossil fuels [169]. Solar power installations, strategically placed in regions such as Southern England and Wales, provide decentralized generation capacity, accounting for around 4% of the country’s electricity generation as of 2022 [166]. By harnessing solar energy, these installations mitigate vulnerability to localized disruptions caused by extreme weather events and diversify the country’s energy mix [170]. Additionally, hydroelectric power plants located in Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland that tap into the energy of rivers and reservoirs, providing resilience against supply disruptions induced by climate-related events [171], accounted for around 2% of the country’s electricity generation as of 2022 [166]. Hydroelectric reservoirs also function as flood control mechanisms by regulating water levels and releasing stored water during periods of excessive rainfall, thus mitigating downstream flooding impacts [171].

Nevertheless, the UK encounters several obstacles in deploying RE in its pursuit of climate change adaptation. Firstly, the nation’s relatively limited land availability poses a challenge to the deployment of RE infrastructure, such as solar farms and wind turbines, specifically in strategically populated areas, thus hindering energy resilience [160,172]. In this context, local communities in the country often voice concerns about the visual impact, noise, and other potential drawbacks of RE facilities, limiting their deployment in crucial locations for adaptation purposes [173]. Like Australia and Canada, the UK grapples with the intermittency of RE sources like wind and solar power [174,175]. The UK’s electricity grid infrastructure may also require upgrades to accommodate the integration of RE projects, further impeding efforts to diversify the country’s energy mix and deploy decentralized and resilient RE sources [176]. Finally, evidence shows that changes in government policies and regulations have created uncertainty for investors and developers in the RE sector, hindering additional investment and project development to support the adaptation of energy systems [177,178].

5. Discussion and Conclusions

This study investigates the role of RE as part of national climate change adaptation policies, alongside its conventional function in mitigation. To this end, this study examined three countries: Australia, Canada, and the UK.

Table 2. Renewable energy role in climate change adaptation policies: Australia, Canada, and the UK.

	Australia	Canada	The UK
Main climate concerns	Numerous concerns due to the country’s considerable size and climatic diversity: significant increase in temperatures, heat waves, fires, and droughts. In addition, enhanced floods and sea level rise.	Numerous concerns due to the country’s considerable size and climatic diversity: significant increase in temperature, melting of glaciers, and sea level rise. In addition, an increasing number of storms, floods, and fires.	Relatively mild concerns: moderate temperature rise, storms, floods, and sea level rise.
Adaptation policy	- A dedicated national program for adaptation (NCRAS) combined with a program specifically focusing on infrastructure resilience. - A national funding program to tackle climate change supported by a dedicated research facility (NCCARF). - Independent programs at the provincial level addressing local communities’ needs.	- The National Adaptation Strategy supports a concrete action plan devised by the central government. - A cooperation program among the central government and the various provinces to promote local adaptation goals. - Risk management program for climate change, combined with dedicated research initiatives and international collaborations.	- The National Adaptation Programme dictates the country’s strategy, combined with a dedicated program for infrastructure resilience. - A national climate change risk assessment program (CCRA) combined with the requirement for self-assessments by the private sector. - The Green Financing Programme funds adaptation efforts at the national and local levels.
RE within adaptation policy	- The role of RE is addressed as part of the NCRAS. - Dedicated programs for RE deployment to increase overall resilience, such as the National Energy Transformation Partnership. - Programs to support energy adaptation efforts in remote communities, First Nations in particular. - Special attention to preparing the electricity grid for RE integration for adaptation purposes.	- The role of RE is addressed as part of the National Adaptation Strategy. - Cooperation between the central government and provincial governments in promoting RE for adaptation purposes. - Programs like the Climate Action Incentive Fund financially support adaptation efforts through RE across the country. - Dedicated programs at the national and provincial levels for climate change adaptation using RE in remote communities, including the Indigenous People.	- The role of RE is addressed as part of the National Adaptation Programme and the CCRA. - The Renewable Energy Roadmap addresses adaptation efforts as part of the RE strategy implementation. - The private sector is required to evaluate and report its resilience in the energy field, addressing RE in particular. - Dedicated programs for research and international collaborations focus on adaptation through RE.
RE deployment	A target of 100% RE-based electricity production by 2050, currently standing at 32%, led by solar (13%), wind energy (10%), and hydropower (6%).	A target of 100% RE-based electricity by 2050, currently standing at 70%, led by hydropower (60%), wind energy (6%), and biomass (1.5%).	A target of 100% RE-based electricity by 2050, currently standing at 60%, led by wind energy (25%), biomass (12%), and solar (4%).
Notable limitations in RE deployment	Inconsistent policy and inadequate incentives for RE deployment.	The extensive land area hinders the deployment of RE in remote areas.	Public acceptance issues hinder the deployment of RE in strategic locations.

below summarizes the findings of the three case studies, presenting the main climate concerns faced by each country, followed by its adaptation policy, including the role of RE, and concluding with the execution of RE deployment and its limitations.

As can be seen in Table 2, while the impacts of climate change, such as temperature fluctuations, changes in precipitation patterns, sea level rise, and extreme weather events, are apparent across all countries, Australia and Canada face a broader spectrum of challenges due to their vast geographical expanses and climatic diversity. Additionally, it appears that the climatic concerns of Australia and Canada, particularly when compared to those of the UK, bear greater significance due to moderating factors unique to the latter. Despite the differences, all three of these developed countries acknowledge the critical importance of adaptation in addressing climate change. This is underscored by the existence of official and comprehensive adaptation policies, demonstrating that addressing climate change has evolved significantly in recent years, with adaptation now constituting an essential component of national policy, aligning with the more recognized focus on mitigation efforts.

This study specifically examines the role of RE in the adaptation of energy systems to climate change within these policies. While the main adaptation strategies in all three countries refer to RE in supporting the resilience of energy systems, their approach appears relatively vague, especially compared to other adaptation measures, which include more specific objectives. Nevertheless, all three countries supplement their main adaptation strategies with additional programs aimed at promoting RE for adaptation purposes, referring to more detailed and specific measures to enhance the resilience of their energy sectors. In this context, they all emphasize the significance of local engagement, particularly within communities, in the context of utilizing RE for adaptation purposes. Moreover, they allocate resources to research, risk management, and global cooperation initiatives related to adaptation, all while emphasizing the pivotal role of RE in these endeavors. This approach signifies significant strides in the overall understanding of RE’s role as an adaptation tool.

The size and geographical features of each country play a significant role in their approach to climate change adaptation using RE. Given Canada and Australia’s substantial climatic diversity and vast geographic expanses, effective collaboration between the central government and provincial entities is crucial in addressing adaptation at the local level using RE. Indeed, in both countries, special programs exist to enhance such cooperation in an effort to achieve their adaptation goals using RE. The UK government, by contrast, can afford more centralized control in addressing climate change using RE due to the country’s size and governance structure.

Moreover, the population density and geographic features of each country significantly influence their RE deployment strategies, particularly in the context of climate change adaptation. While Canada and Australia are characterized by vast land areas—approximately 40 and 32 times larger than the UK—their relatively low population densities present both challenges and opportunities for the implementation of RE in adapting to climate change. In remote areas, often vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, decentralized RE systems such as off-grid solar and wind power combined with local storage can enhance resilience by reducing reliance on long-distance transmission and fossil fuels. In Canada, for instance, decentralized RE projects have improved energy access and reduced emissions in isolated regions, offering a key adaptation measure to mitigate the effects of climate-induced disruptions. Similarly, Australia’s expansive landmass allows for large-scale RE projects in regions with high RE potential, supporting climate adaptation by strengthening energy infrastructure resilience.

In contrast, the UK’s higher population density—1.6 times that of Canada and 2.4 times that of Australia—presents distinct challenges for RE integration within climate adaptation strategies. The compact geographic size necessitates innovative solutions for urban RE deployment and grid integration while raising concerns about the social acceptance of large-scale projects. However, the smaller geographic area also enables more centralized control over energy systems, facilitating streamlined regulatory oversight and the implementation of adaptive policies.

These distinct geographical and demographic characteristics highlight the need for tailored RE policies that directly address climate change adaptation efforts. Canada and Australia must focus on expanding high-voltage transmission grids and decentralized energy systems to enhance energy resilience in remote, climate-vulnerable areas. Meanwhile, the UK must prioritize integrating RE into densely populated urban regions, upgrading low-voltage networks, and adopting innovative grid solutions to support both mitigation and adaptation. Recognizing these differences is essential for designing effective RE policies that align with each country’s unique geographical and population contexts while enhancing their capacity to adapt to climate change.

In particular, a notable issue apparent across all three countries is the challenge of effectively linking their adaptation policy with the practical implementation of RE. Despite significant policy attention to adaptation through RE, the countries’ ability to successfully execute their policies seems limited. While RE deployment often focuses on achieving mitigation objectives, this study emphasizes the importance of adaptation measures within the energy sector. Specifically, the use of decentralized and resilient RE systems, such as solar and wind energy, can play a critical role in minimizing risks associated with floods, fires, and storms, ensuring energy access, and reducing reliance on vulnerable, centralized systems. However, current RE deployment strategies prioritize achieving high utilization rates, which may not fully align with the need for geographic and technological diversification necessary for climate change adaptation in the energy sector. Canada serves as an illustrative example: while characterized by very high RE utilization rates, its reliance on a single technology—large-scale hydroelectricity—poses challenges because it fails to adequately diversify its energy portfolio in terms of technology and geographical location, thereby increasing vulnerability and falling short of adaptation standards.

Several factors may contribute to this issue. Firstly, the uncertain and unforeseen impacts of climate-related effects diminish political incentives to allocate resources to implementing adaptation solutions, such as RE, because it may be difficult to quantify and justify their effectiveness [179,180]. Additionally, on the international stage, predominant pressures primarily concentrate on influencing countries’ mitigation actions due to their global influence, relegating adaptation efforts to a predominantly local concern [44]. Consequently, the absence of international enforcement mechanisms and significant external pressures reduces decision-makers’ motivation to implement adaptation policies, particularly concerning RE deployment. Finally, adaptation policies regarding RE necessitate significant and meticulous intervention from decision-makers to guide various stakeholders (e.g., the private sector) in determining the types of RE technologies to be employed, as well as their scale and location, further complicating the implementation of such policies [181].

This study, therefore, makes significant contributions by enhancing our understanding of how RE systems can be utilized as a specific adaptation tool within the energy sector [38,39], particularly emphasizing the role of policy frameworks in this regard. It demonstrates the importance of decentralized RE technologies, such as solar and wind systems, in providing energy security during climate-related events like floods, storms, and extreme temperatures. This study specifically highlights the critical role of geographical and technological diversification in ensuring resilience and reducing the vulnerability of energy systems to climate disruptions. While the integration of RE into the central adaptation strategies of the examined countries lacks detailed elaboration, this study highlights a noticeable rise in awareness regarding RE’s role in adaptation efforts in the developed world, as is especially evident in numerous supportive programs [43]. Within this context, this study underscores a relatively widespread consensus concerning the importance of factors like local attention, research initiatives, and risk assessment in utilizing RE for adaptation purposes. However, this study also reveals that even when RE is thoroughly addressed as part of adaptation policies, its actual deployment may predominantly focus on mitigation efforts, with less emphasis on crucial aspects such as geographical and technological diversification of RE for adaptation purposes.

Accordingly, Figure 1 below presents the schematic policy process for implementing RE technologies as adaptation measures, specifically within the energy sector. This framework outlines how RE technologies address the risks posed by climate-related events like floods, fires, and extreme weather. The process begins with identifying energy sector-specific risks caused by climate change, with the associated threat being the failure to adequately identify climate-related risks specific to energy infrastructure. The second step involves formulating an adaptation policy focused on energy resilience, where the threat lies in the failure to address energy sector vulnerabilities comprehensively. The third step emphasizes integrating RE technologies into the adaptation policy to enhance energy resilience, with the threat being vague or insufficient incorporation of RE as a tool for energy adaptation. The final step entails the actual deployment of RE technologies to build climate-resilient energy systems, with the threat being the failure to deploy RE systems that specifically address identified climate-related energy risks. As can be seen, if a particular climate threat materializes, it necessitates revisiting the corresponding policy step to ensure that RE is effectively implemented for climate change adaptation in the energy sector.

This study, however, is subject to several limitations. Firstly, it focuses solely on three developed Anglo-Saxon countries, which may influence the nature of the findings. Secondly, the article primarily relies on readily available materials, which could limit the nuanced identification of connections between policy formulation and implementation. Future research should, therefore, expand the scope to include countries with diverse climatic, political, and economic characteristics, examining adaptation policies that employ RE under different conditions. Additionally, conducting in-depth interviews and exploring internal materials could provide deeper insights into the rationale behind the design and implementation of adaptation policies through RE. Moreover, while this study centers on the role of RE in climate adaptation, future research could also investigate the economic and policy dimensions of ambitious net-zero targets as observed in the countries studied here. Such research might examine the alignment of relevant policies with concepts like marginal abatement costs and the social cost of carbon, as well as the role of carbon pricing in shaping effective emissions reduction strategies. Ultimately, these aspects could be integrated into broader policies that address both mitigation and adaptation goals. Finally, future studies should assess the effectiveness of various policies utilizing RE for adaptation purposes while thoroughly exploring the factors that contribute to their success.