“Pseudo-Contracted” Workers as a Means of Bypassing Labour Law in Greece
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Literature Review
2.1. Leased and “Pseudo-Contracted” Workers in Greece and the EU
2.2. Labor Laws in Greece
3. Materials and Methods
Discussion of the Difficulties in Identifying Contracted Workers: The Quantitative Research and the Development of Respondent Driven Sampling (RDS) Methodology
4. Results of Empirical Field Research
4.1. Demographic, Work Characteristics, and Educational Level of Contracted Workers
4.2. Criteria for the Distinction of Leasing and “Pseudo” Contract Agreement and Wage Differences
Employee: “The contracting business I work for, renews project contracts with the Banks and their subsidiaries every year. However, the tasks assigned to us have been the same for many years. The only thing that changes is the name of the project”.(employee T., aged 37)
Employee: “We don’t know what the project is. For years, we sit at the same work station in the user undertaking and do the same things that the user undertaking assigns to us”.(employee M., aged 45)
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
- A. Questionnaire questions (quantitative research)
- A. DEMOGRAPHIC/INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS
- What is your gender? 1. Man
2. Woman
- What is your birth year? ……………………. (year)
- What is your marital status?
- 1. Single
2. Married
3. Widowed
4. Divorced
- How many members does your family/household include if you have children?
- 1. Total number of members (children and adults)
2. Number of children
- What level of education do you have?
- 1. Primary school graduate
2. Lower secondary school graduate
3. Higher secondary school graduate
4. Graduate of Vocational Educational Institutes/O.A.ED (post-high school)
5. University graduate
6. Holder of a Master’s Degree
7. Holder of PhD
- 6.
- What is your nationality? 1. Greek
2. Foreigner
- 7.
- In which city do you live permanently?
- 1. Athens
2. Thessaloniki
3. Patras
4. Another urban area
5. Semi-urban area
6. Agricultural-Fishing area (village)
- 8.
- In which city is your place of work?
- 1. Athens
2. Thessaloniki
3. Patras
4. Another urban area
5. Semi-urban area
6. Agricultural-Fishing area (village)
- B. ABOUT THE EMPLOYMENT CONTRACT AND EMPLOYMENT STATUS
- What type of contract have you signed with your recent contracting business (your employer)?
- 1. Indefinite with the contracting business to work within the premises of a second-user undertaking (contractor’s client) to complete the project
- 2. Fixed-term contract with the contracting business to work within the premises of a second-user undertaking (contractor’s client) to complete the project
- 3. Project contract with the contracting business
- 4. Independent services
- 5. Another (which one?)
- Is the contract with the contracting business your main employment contract?
- 1. Yes
2. No
- Are you employed in the user undertaking in projects corresponding to your specialty?
- 1. Yes
2. No
- What kind of job position do you currently hold in the user undertaking for which you work to complete a project (*)?
- Is working through a contracting business what you want to do?
- 1. Yes
2. No
- What was in the past month your net monthly remuneration, including any additional payments you received from the contractor?
- Have you attended any training program related to your work?
- 1. Yes
2. No
- C. Criteria-characteristics of distinction between project agreements with Business Service Providers and leasing agreements through TWAs
- 1.
- Is the managerial and supervisory right (e.g., instructions, orders, control of the project) exercised by the second-user undertaking to which you are assigned for the completion of the project?
- 1. Yes
2. No
3. I do not know
- 2.
- Do you use the equipment and hardware (e.g., computers, telephones, chairs, etc.) of the user undertaking to which you are assigned to complete the project?
- 1. Yes
2. No
3. I do not know
- 3.
- Do you work together and in the same work groups with the permanent staff of the user undertaking?
- 1. Yes
2. No
3. I do not know
- 4.
- Are your hours of employment (duration) and not the final completion of the project the sole and main factor in calculating your remuneration?
- 1. Yes
2. No
3. I do not know
- 5.
- Do you know whether the project contract between the employer and the contracting business specifies the number of employees to work on the project as well as the required qualifications (knowledge, certificates of study, etc.)?
- 1. Yes
2. No
3. I do not know
- 6.
- Are your working hours the same or almost the same as the working hours of the permanent staff of the user undertaking?
- 1. Yes
2. No
3. I do not know
- 7.
- Does your contract state only a general description of the work you will perform (e.g., administrative support, data entry, etc.) and do you receive more instructions/orders from the user undertaking?
- 1. Yes
2. No
3. I do not know
- 8.
- The duration of the project, as well as the type of tasks you cover with your employment at the user undertaking, are related to permanent needs, which are part of the undertaking’s main activity and were previously performed by its permanent staff?
- 1. Yes
2. No
3. I do not know
- 9.
- Does the user undertaking actually assign you other tasks and/or additional tasks than those originally described in your contract?
- 1. Yes
2. No
3. I do not know
- 10.
- Does the contracting business for which you undertake projects have the necessary organization, logistical infrastructure and know-how to carry out projects in different businesses and industries that it undertakes on behalf of user undertakings?
- 1. Yes
2. No
3. I do not know
- 11.
- If there is a problem with the work you are doing, to whom are you accountable?
- 1. To the contracting business
- 2. To the user undertaking to which you are assigned
- 3. I do not know
Appendix B
- Questions addressed to the Chairman of contracted workers (qualitative research)
- 1. What are the dominating labour relations in your industry? What are the most crucial problems that contracted workers face (e.g., pay inequalities, lack of advancement, long-term employment on the same project, foreign workers, etc.).
Appendix C
- Questions addressed to the contracted workers (qualitative research)
- 1. What are the dominating labour relations in your industry? What are the most crucial problems that contracted workers face (e.g., pay inequalities, lack of advancement, long-term employment on the same project, foreign workers, etc.).
1 | This paper refers to the term of “pseudo-contracting” because contracting businesses usually conclude virtual project contracts that cover up the practice of leasing workers through TWAs. This leasing is not overt, but it is concealed under the cloak of a project or service agreement. That said, the contracted workers, and especially the in-house outsourced workers, are usually pseudo-contracted workers and in reality, leased workers (See details related to Greece in Section 2.2 Labor Laws in Greece). |
2 | The TWA, as the direct or primary employer, is responsible for the conclusion or termination of the employment contract, the employee's salary and their benefits, the right to compensation in the event of dismissal and their insurance rights. |
3 | The maximum duration of concession varies from 6 months (e.g., Spain, Finland) to 42 months (e.g., Netherlands). In Greece, the temporary assignment to the user undertaking can last up to 36 months. The temporary assignment duration is not determined by the European Directive, but each country sets their own limits (For details regarding Greece see Section 2.2 Labor Laws in Greece). |
4 | The user-undertaking, as an indirect or secondary employer, exercises the managerial right and is responsible for the health and safety of the employees, and liable in cases of work accidents. |
5 | Snowball sampling is when the researcher asks the initial subjects are asked to help them identify other subjects and those, in their turn, to identify others and so on. |
6 | This time refers to the required time for the entire interview, both of the quantitative and qualitative leg. However, this paper refers to some of the topics covered in the questionnaire and not all. Thus, the time spent with the respondents for the interviews was less. |
7 | Where c.i.: Confidence interval. The actual value of a parameter of the population is expected to be within this interval of values. |
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Percentage | Ages |
---|---|
0% | 23.0 |
10% | 30.0 |
20% | 33.8 |
30% | 35.0 |
40% | 36.0 |
50% | 38.0 |
60% | 40.0 |
70% | 42.0 |
80% | 45.0 |
90% | 48.6 |
100% | 59.0 |
What Is Your Marital Status? | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
Sample (365 Employees) | Average (%) | Confidence Interval 95%, Lower Limit | Confidence Interval 95%, Higher Limit | Standard Error |
Single | 59.0 | 52.0 | 66.1 | 3.6 |
Divorced | 10.6 | 6.6 | 14.5 | 2.0 |
Married | 30.4 | 24.1 | 36.4 | 3.1 |
What Is Your Level of Education? | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
Sample (365 Employees) | Average (%) | Confidence Interval 95%, Lower Limit | Confidence Interval 95%, Higher Limit | Standard Error |
University Graduate | 58.7 | 51.6 | 65.9 | 3.6 |
Graduate of Vocational Educational Institutes/OAED | 13.6 | 9.4 | 17.4 | 2.0 |
Higher Secondary School Graduate | 20.0 | 14.4 | 25.6 | 2.8 |
Holder of a Master’s Degree | 7.7 | 4.1 | 11.3 | 1.8 |
Is Working through a Contracting Business What You Want to Do? | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
Sample (365 Employees) | Average (%) | Confidence Interval 95%, Lower Limit | Confidence Interval 95%, Higher Limit | Standard Error |
Yes | 1.2 | 0 | 2.2 | 0.5 |
No | 98.8 | 97.7 | 100 | 0.5 |
What Type of Contract Have You Signed with Your Recent Contracting Business? | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
Sample (365 Employees) | Average (%) | Confidence Interval 95%, Lower Limit | Confidence Interval 95%, Higher Limit | Standard Error |
Indefinite Term Contract | 76.2 | 65.7 | 86.7 | 5.3 |
Fixed-Term contract | 23.8 | 13.2 | 34.2 | 5.3 |
Do you work together and in the same work groups with the permanent staff of the user undertaking? (third criterion) | ||||
Sample (365 employees) | Average (%) | Confidence Interval 95%, Lower Limit | Confidence Interval 95%, Higher Limit | Standard Error |
Yes | 99.9 | 99.7 | 100 | 0.1 |
No | 0.1 | 0 | 0.3 | 0.1 |
Do you know whether the project contract between the employer and the contracting business specifies the number of employees to work on the project as well as the required qualifications (knowledge, certificates of study, etc.)? (fifth criterion) | ||||
I don’t Know | 57.5 | 50.6 | 64.4 | 3.5 |
Yes | 42.5 | 35.5 | 49.4 | 3.5 |
Are your working hours the same or almost the same as the working hours of the permanent staff of the user undertaking? (sixth criterion) | ||||
Yes | 95.7 | 92.5 | 98.8 | 1.5 |
No | 4.3 | 1.2 | 7.4 | 1.5 |
Does the user undertaking actually assign you other tasks and/or additional tasks than those originally described in your contract? (ninth criterion) | ||||
Yes | 89.2 | 85.0 | 93.4 | 2.1 |
No | 10.8 | 6.5 | 15.0 | 2.1 |
Does the contracting business for which you work have the necessary organization, logistical infrastructure and know-how to carry out projects in different businesses and industries that it undertakes on behalf of user undertakings? (tenth criterion) | ||||
I Don’t Know | 0.4 | 0 | 1.1 | 0.3 |
No | 99.6 | 98.9 | 100 | 0.3 |
If there is a problem with the work you are doing, to whom are you accountable? (eleventh criterion) | ||||
To the User Undertaking to which you are assignment | 99.7 | 99.1 | 100 | 0.3 |
To The Contracting Business | 0.3 | 0 | 0.9 | 0.3 |
Have You Attended Any Training Program Related to Your Work? | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
Sample (365 Employees) | Average (%) | Confidence Interval 95%, Lower Limit | Confidence Interval 95%, Higher Limit | Standard Error |
Yes | 59.2 | 51.9 | 66.4 | 3.6 |
No | 40.8 | 33.5 | 48.0 | 3.6 |
Sample (365 Employees) | Full Time | Part Time |
---|---|---|
Average | 728.06 | 494.24 |
Median | 718.57 | 483.51 |
Standard Deviation | 84.13 | 55.10 |
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Rompoti, E.D.; Ioannides, A.D. “Pseudo-Contracted” Workers as a Means of Bypassing Labour Law in Greece. Adm. Sci. 2023, 13, 235. https://doi.org/10.3390/admsci13110235
Rompoti ED, Ioannides AD. “Pseudo-Contracted” Workers as a Means of Bypassing Labour Law in Greece. Administrative Sciences. 2023; 13(11):235. https://doi.org/10.3390/admsci13110235
Chicago/Turabian StyleRompoti, Eleni D., and Alexis D. Ioannides. 2023. "“Pseudo-Contracted” Workers as a Means of Bypassing Labour Law in Greece" Administrative Sciences 13, no. 11: 235. https://doi.org/10.3390/admsci13110235