Unlocking the Factors That Motivate Social Entrepreneurs to Engage in Social Entrepreneurship Projects in Tanzania: A Qualitative Case Study

Abstract

Social entrepreneurial ventures thrive on diverse motivations, evolving through stages. This research delved into the dynamic shifts in motivations guiding social entrepreneurs across projects and initiatives in Tanzania. Despite numerous attempts by scholars to study and theorize the motivations of social entrepreneurs, there remains a significant gap in understanding the primary focus of social entrepreneurs’ involvement in various social entrepreneurship projects. This research aimed to address this knowledge gap by exploring the motivations that drive social entrepreneurs in Tanzania to engage in social entrepreneurship ventures. The study specifically investigated the CHEMA and Gongali Model cases. The respondents consisted of 20 social entrepreneurs, with 9 from CHEMA and 11 from the Gongali Model. The findings highlight the influence of personal experiences and backgrounds in establishing innovative social enterprises, emphasizing the importance of achieving successful outcomes. The study suggests that social entrepreneurs are motivated not only by their individual needs and goals but also by the satisfaction derived from witnessing the positive impact of their work on others. Successful entrepreneurship, the study argues, requires a focus on effecting changes at both the macro and micro levels. When the intended purpose of social entrepreneurs is achieved, it serves as a significant indicator of success. The report delves deeper into how these findings influence the overall infrastructure and mindset of social entrepreneurs in Tanzania. This research introduces a novel motivational model and connects it with critical success characteristics in social innovation projects, contributing to the advancement of social entrepreneurship research. Additionally, it proposes fundamental innovations in governance and operations within the field of social entrepreneurship. From the organizational context perspective, the findings contribute to a better understanding of the factors that contribute to the formation and growth of social enterprises in Tanzania.

1. Introduction

Social entrepreneurship, characterized by its dual imperative to catalyze social change while concurrently ensuring financial sustainability, has emerged as an increasingly prominent and transformative force within contemporary society (Picciotti 2017; Gupta et al. 2020). Against the backdrop of escalating global challenges encompassing socio-economic inequities, environmental degradation, and social injustice, the purview of entrepreneurship has undergone expansion to incorporate not only economic development but also active roles in social betterment (Diaz Gonzalez and Dentchev 2021). The scholarly and policymaking communities alike have recognized the substantive role played by social entrepreneurship in shaping societal dynamics. Notably, recent crises, such as the COVID-19 pandemic and heightened political animosity, have thrust this subject into the limelight. The imperative for social entrepreneurship has been underscored by the confluence of a burgeoning economy, diminished inequality, enhanced stability and prosperity, and the provision of viable solutions to the most pressing issues afflicting communities.

These evolutions underscore the imperative for a thorough scholarly examination of the multifaceted factors propelling individuals into the intricate realm of social entrepreneurship from diverse perspectives (Kruse et al. 2020; Lehmen et al. 2023). An analysis of this nature carries significant import for policymakers, stakeholders, and organizational scholars committed to fostering an environment conducive to the optimal flourishing of social entrepreneurship. Therefore, while there has been some study on social entrepreneurship, several scholars have suggested further study on social entrepreneurship to better understand the motives of social entrepreneurs starting their ventures (Gupta et al. 2020; Chandra et al. 2021; Wanyoike and Maseno 2021). Yitshaki et al. (2021) suggested that future research should focus on exploring various other altruistic motivations in prosocial opportunity recognition among social entrepreneurs. In addition, Saebi et al. (2018) emphasized that studies on social entrepreneurship should link individuals and organizational levels. There is a lack of extant studies that examine the long-term effects of these motives on an individual level, group level, and the initiatives involved in social activity management. This paucity of research becomes even more apparent within developing economies where social entrepreneurship encounters unique challenges and possibilities for the establishment of social entrepreneurial projects (Gupta et al. 2020).

With regards to previous researchers, it is common for social entrepreneurs to emerge from the communities they want to improve, highlighting the need for examining the incentives that drive their simultaneous dedication to both economic and social well-being (Chandra et al. 2021). Do their involvements arise from personal life experiences, motivated by a sense of urgency to solve unfulfilled social needs, or are they inspired by a combination of other factors? The primary objective of this research was to elucidate the complex structure of factors that motivate individuals into accepting engaging on social entrepreneurial projects’ initiatives. Furthermore, some previous research tended to ignore the unique characteristics and setbacks of social entrepreneurship in emerging markets by ignoring the potentially transformative role of local factors in creating entrepreneurship (Pacut 2020).

To bridge these identified gaps, the current research adopted qualitative research methodologies and leveraged case studies of local social enterprises, namely, CHEMA and the Gongali Model, situated in Tanzania. This approach was designed not only to deepen our contextual comprehension of social entrepreneurship in Tanzania but also to enhance the overarching theoretical framework pertaining to social entrepreneurship, particularly within communities grappling with resource scarcity in developing countries. Through a nuanced examination of the intricate interplay among sociocultural, economic, and individual determinants, this research endeavored to contribute to the configuration of policy frameworks, pave the way for future organizational research initiatives, and advance our understanding of social entrepreneurship as a transformative force. Ultimately, the study aspired to furnish a comprehensive analysis that can extend the exploration of common motivational factors propelling individuals to engage in social entrepreneurship projects within the Tanzanian context.

The article follows a structured organization, commencing with a comprehensive literature review that meticulously examined the varied dimensions of motivations and success trajectories shaping a social entrepreneur’s trajectory across the distinct stages of the entrepreneurial life cycle (Lehmen et al. 2023). This section not only contextualizes the present study within the broader academic landscape but also elucidates the intricate nuances of the subject matter. Subsequently, the research method is delineated, setting the foundation for the ensuing presentation of results and findings. The article culminates with a synthesis of the theoretical and empirical insights derived from this research endeavor, offering an overview and charting a course for future academic researchers to navigate.

2. Theoretical Framework

2.1. Defining Social Entrepreneurship

Social entrepreneurs work to design goods, services, and institutions that are contributing to creating economically, socially, and environmentally more stable societies through their activities (Picciotti 2017). There has been a lot of work performed to define social entrepreneurship, and conceptual research has received attention above empirical studies (Chandra et al. 2021). In the same way that we rely on hard work, innovation, and resourcefulness to solve social problems, such as poverty or the environmental crisis, they identify opportunities and create types of services and products for the community, associating a social role with a company’s strategy (Petrella and Richez-Battesti 2014; Barki et al. 2020). According to Doherty et al. (2014), social entrepreneurship encourages innovative solutions to societal problems. In addition, they detail strategies for discovering and exploring opportunities for creating novel social ventures and maintaining steady innovation within existing ones (Morris et al. 2020; Saebi et al. 2018).

It should be noted that the existence of various definitions could be an opportunity for more research in new settings that expand upon and deepen the existing knowledge of social entrepreneurship (Hollensbe et al. 2014). Given its popularity and significance in describing social enterprise as the merging of both charitable and for-profit approaches, Barki et al., among others, showed that recent studies continue to research social entrepreneurship in different settings (Barki et al. 2020). Additionally, these definitions may vary globally, mainly due to the variety of contexts in which these social ventures find themselves interpreted differently across geographic regions, adding further complexity to its conceptual ideology (Saebi et al. 2018)

2.2. Motivation and Its Types

The etymology of the word “motivation” may be traced back to a Latin origin that means “to move” (Bindra 1974). It refers to the internal and external factors that stimulate, guide, and maintain an individual’s goal-oriented, conscious effort (Bateman and Snell 2002). According to George and Jones (2014), motivation consists of psychological forces that determine the direction of behaviors in any individual, the extent of effort expended, and the degree to which challenges are pursued in the face of the readiness to put out effort in pursuit of a desirable result. The pursuit of this knowledge has assumed various forms through the course of time (Bindra 1974). Moreover, motivation is a mechanism that inspires individuals towards achieving goals that are associated with relationship connections (Weinstein 2014). Depending on how much desire people possess, there are various personalities that identify individuals’ desires to act on various activities (Ryan and Deci 2000). This has been broken down into three primary segments, which are focus, determination, and vitality; are all necessary for individuals’ success (Weinstein 2014). There is presently no consensus regarding which theoretical approach is better for explaining motivation, especially in a business setting, as stated by previous researchers on this topic who broke down two major propositions on factors that play roles in motivating individuals: the “push” and “pull” theories of motivation (Kirkwood and Walton 2010). For that reason, push–pull ideas have been around since the 1980s, but they have not received much study in other fields like social entrepreneurship.

External motivators are the focus of the push theory, whereby push motivation comes from external forces, while pull motivation comes from internal forces. It is impossible to bring about change in a person by using incentives that the person does not want (Segal et al. 2005). Several authors have given the significance of push theories of motivation and have claimed that the impact is somewhat minor. Most definitions of motivation agree with these aspects, as follows: (1) motivation is “goal-oriented” (Lawler 1994), (2) “motivation describes the process of achieving and pursuing goals” (Denhardt et al. 2015), and (3) motivation is influenced by surrounding circumstances (Pettinger 1996).

2.3. Social Entrepreneurship: Characteristics and Motivation

Apart from being studied as a subset of entrepreneurship, social entrepreneurship is now a separate discipline in the eyes of scholars. Although the factors that motivate traditional entrepreneurs have been researched extensively, the same cannot be said for social entrepreneurs in emerging markets and geographical location (see Elliott 2019; Saebi et al. 2018; Lehmen et al. 2023). Due to the expansion of the theoretical knowledge base on social ventures, influenced by studies on the motivation of social entrepreneurs, there is a need for further research to identify new factors contributing to the motivation of social entrepreneurs (Wanyoike and Maseno 2021; Samuelsson and Witell 2022). On the other hand, Locke and Baum (2007) described the relevance or magnitude of the action being taken, which impacts an entrepreneur’s motivation, which in turn influences the entrepreneur’s decision-making readiness and magnitude that determines how long the entrepreneur will keep the spirit of doing good in the community. The literature also reflects on the factors that motivate individuals to establish social enterprises. These factors include considerations such as social and individual benefits, public support, societal expectations and standards, sustainability evaluations, social responsibility models, as well as beliefs and ideas (Pacut 2020). Social entrepreneurs, in contrast, contribute to the community rather than focusing on their individual profit making. Due to those contrary circumstances, the question of what motivates individuals to get involved in social entrepreneurship activities arises (Kruse et al. 2020; Wanyoike and Maseno 2021).

While there are indications in the literature, comprehensive studies aimed at pinpointing a clear and concise set of motivating factors for individuals attracted to social entrepreneurship projects, given their inherent complexity, seem to be lacking. It is crucial to evaluate prior research on motivation, especially considering the inadequate study regarding the motives for social entrepreneurship in the Tanzanian setting. Regarding the information that was just stipulated, it should be abundantly evident that it was essential to consider the previous research that was conducted on the motivation of social entrepreneurs in different geographical settings (Wanyoike and Maseno 2021).

In their study, Ghalwash et al. (2017) found a range of motivating elements that are essential in influencing and motivating social entrepreneurs. The motives include tackling societal issues and difficulties, seeking motivation, using personal experiences, and obtaining perspectives from their networks. Being motivated to undertake entrepreneurial ventures is often derived from the want to actively address and resolve social challenges. Furthermore, motivation might be associated with previous encounters with tasks and undertakings, as well as the endorsement, assistance, and monetary rewards offered by family, friends, partners, and coworkers. Christopoulos and Vogl (2014) also investigated the influence of the network of interactions on the motivation of social entrepreneurs. They highlighted crucial elements like social responsibility, iconoclasm, network scale and dependability, entrepreneurship, prosperity, and government interactions. Mottiar (2016) suggested that an entrepreneur’s motivation might be impacted by external influences, such as government indications. According to research conducted by Wanyoike and Maseno (2021), social entrepreneurs are largely driven by personal experiences linked to previous life situations. This motivation is distinguished by a fusion of proximity to the stated issue and a dedication to improving society. Moreover, a strong focus on achieving goals and improving people’s lives while making a good difference has been identified as a primary driving force for social entrepreneurship in East Africa (Wanyoike and Maseno 2021). Choi and Majumdar (2014) observed that the many environments in which social entrepreneurs operate make it difficult to properly determine the reasons for their involvement in social enterprise ventures. Their study on entrepreneurship showed that a prosocial drive may have a good effect on improving society’s standards of living. However, there is still a lack of knowledge of the possible negative repercussions of prosocial motivation in some situations, as stressed by Kibler et al. (2019). The researchers posed an important topic about the potential negative impact of prosocial drive on the subjective well-being of entrepreneurs engaged in managing a business.

Individual networks of social entrepreneurs play a crucial role in shaping their resource bricolage, with a focus on the impact of prosocial motivation outside of the social entrepreneurship environment. The emphasis is on understanding the underlying mechanisms of social entrepreneurial behaviors prior to the development of social enterprises (Kibler et al. 2019). In addition, Kruse et al. (2020) enhanced the knowledge of social entrepreneurs by examining the motives and leadership qualities that characterize them. This study differentiated social entrepreneurs from those involved in traditional entrepreneurship and nonprofit organizations. Kruse et al. (2020) emphasized more how crucial it is for social entrepreneurs to explore unfamiliar domains to guide and enable transformation, especially in response to changing political, social, and environmental circumstances. Moreover, other researchers pointed out that a comparable individual network has the potential to produce unique behavioral outcomes within the context of social entrepreneurship (Liu et al. 2020). Understanding the factors that motivate individuals in creating positive change in society was proven by previous researchers to be essential to social entrepreneurship research (Wanyoike and Maseno 2021).

The literature review facilitated the exploration and compilation of crucial aspects that influence the motivation of social entrepreneurs. Scholars have extensively investigated several facets to comprehend the characteristics and driving forces of social entrepreneurs to establish their projects. According to Phillips et al. (2014), the key qualities necessary for entrepreneurial success are boldness, innovation, determination, transparency, and persistence. Furthermore, the study emphasized that traits and abilities such as strategic cognition, willingness to take risks, commitment to clients, proficiency in business, entrepreneurial attitude, passion, clear objectivity, dedication, bravery, and receptiveness are crucial for the success of social enterprises. Nevertheless, social entrepreneurs set themselves apart by demonstrating an additional dedication to resolving social issues. See

Table 1. The propositions and script’s questions.

Propositions	Script’s Questions
Entrance in the entrepreneurship activity and history	Q1. When did you first begin working as an entrepreneur, and what types of projects have you initiated? (Picciotti 2017; Wanyoike and Maseno 2021)
Factors for establishing SE projects	Q2. What were the inspirations for establishing a social company and motivating factors? (Lehmen et al. 2023)
Achievement Orientation. The need to complete a significant achievement or impact (McClelland 1965)	Q3. What are your desired objectives, what achievements have you already attained?
Personal accomplishment	Q4. Have you always envisioned yourself running your own company? Was there a plan for it? (Pacut 2020)
Representation of yourself as a social entrepreneur	Q7(I). What advice would you provide to others interested in starting their own social enterprises? (Braga et al. 2014)
Success in the social entrepreneur’s perspective	Q8(I). Would you proceed with the project even if you do not see the desired outcome? (Kruse et al. 2020) Q8(II). Do you see yourself as being successful? If yes, what is the rationale behind your success?
Business Explore the way that obstacles and challenges influence the will to continue with the project (persistent)	Q9(I). What are the essential proficiencies and aptitudes that a social entrepreneur must acquire to attain a triumphant result? (Neumeier 2016)

Source: Own study.

for the propositions and script’s questions.

3. Materials and Methods

A qualitative case study research method was thought to be most suitable for answering our research question on what factors motivate social entrepreneurs to engage in social entrepreneurial projects? The study complied with the basic ideas of grounded theory (Glaser and Strauss 2017) because, apparently, it has a specific purpose of building a theory from the qualitative data and interpretations of the results.

The use of qualitative research to build, clarify, and evaluate ideas inspires other researchers to broaden their views and expertise (Edmondson and McManus 2007). Nevertheless, as stated by previous researchers, qualitative research possesses a descriptive characteristic, wherein it acquires data that encompass verbal expressions, textual fragments, conceptual notions, and visual representations, all of which originate from the individuals actively involved in the study (Hancock et al. 2021).

To gain a deeper understanding of the factors contributing to social entrepreneurs’ motivation and success in Tanzania, the methodology placed a strong emphasis on the full collection of a social entrepreneur’s personal experiences and backgrounds. In previous studies, some researchers employed comparable approaches to develop their respective ideas (Littlewood and Holt 2018). To gain in-depth knowledge of social entrepreneurship motivation, we employed a face-to-face, in-depth interviews research method. The data collection process took place in the months of June and August 2022 with CHEMA and Gongali Model social entrepreneurs.

Based on Merriam’s (2002) recommendations, relevant questions were asked during each interview to acquire the information needed to offer an in-depth analysis of each participant’s comments. Some interviews were conducted at the participant’s place of employment, while the other interviews were conducted at the office headquarters of CHEMA and the Gongali Model conference room. With the guidance of interview standards, questions were narrowed down to a more manageable number. During interviews with participants who provided their agreement to have their responses recorded, researchers produced notes and summaries of the interviews. After that, the comments that were collected were examined to ensure that they were accurate. Minor changes were made to fill in the gaps where they were identified. Lastly, additional information was gathered by searching for it on the websites of the social entrepreneurs’ firms. A thematic analysis was performed on the collected data, involving multiple phases. Themes were identified and developed further until the most significant ones became apparent.

3.1. Case Study Selection

We employed a purposive sampling methodology to select case studies encompassing a broad spectrum of enterprises within the realm of social entrepreneurship (Stevens et al. 2015). To be more specific, we utilized criterion sampling, involving the selection of instances that met predetermined criteria, such as having a distinct and specific focus of social activities (Miles and Huberman 1984). The participants were chosen using a random sampling approach. To capture a diverse range of social entrepreneurial activities, the final sample size consisted of 20 social entrepreneurs operating in two distinct social entrepreneurship firms with different social activities.

The researchers started by contacting social entrepreneurs’ firms that would be interested in participating in our research project. Two social entrepreneurship firms in Tanzania, that is, CHEMA and the Gongali Model, were selected and the participants were contacted through email and phone to solicit their involvement in the project. Before selecting the case studies, we were able to find out if those firms are meeting standards of social entrepreneurship activities as follows. These businesses engaging in social entrepreneurship are working on promising initiatives that meet the following criteria:

(I)

They participate in philanthropic and environmental activities (Alvord et al. 2004).

(II)

They could foster positive social environmental change in communities by dealing with inequalities, unemployment, and social exclusion as well (Ghalwash et al. 2017).

(III)

They employ today’s most cutting-edge innovative business models (innovation) and catalysts for social changes (Picciotti 2017).

(IV)

The social entrepreneur(s) has (have) an established track record of achievement as a prominent figure in leadership and innovation within the field of social change.

(V)

The individuals originated from various geographical areas, which were the northern and western regions of Tanzania. This study aimed to address the limitations of previous research conducted by Ghalwash et al. (2017), which was characterized by its focus on a single location.

3.1.1. The CHEMA Case Study

CHEMA, an acronym for Community Habitat Environmental Management, operates in the Karagwe District of the Kagera region in the northwest of Tanzania. It functions under the Catholic Church of Tanzania with the overarching goal of ensuring the sustainable access, protection, and equitable sharing of natural resources, as well as promoting sustainable agriculture for the well-being of both current and future generations. The organization is committed to achieving these objectives without causing harm to the environment or jeopardizing human health and safety. Established in 1991 by two social entrepreneurs, CHEMA has grown to involve more than 20 active entrepreneurs. The organization has successfully implemented various community projects, focusing on natural resources management. These projects include initiatives such as afforestation (involving tree nurseries and planting, natural forest regeneration), the promotion of beekeeping, and the development and use of energy-saving stoves. CHEMA also addresses cross-cutting issues like gender and development, HIV/AIDS, basic hygiene and sanitation at the household level, and basic environmental education. The organization’s work encompasses the prevention and control of land degradation, water resources management, and the protection of plants and air-essential components of life support systems (http://chematanzania.org, accessed on 5 July 2022).

3.1.2. Gongali Model Case Study

The Gongali Model is a nanotechnology social enterprise established in 2014, located in Arusha, northern Tanzania. The enterprise focuses on providing clean and sanitary water to the community, with a commitment to involving and benefiting residents. By sourcing resources locally and creating employment opportunities within the community, the Gongali Model places community welfare at the forefront of its operations. The overarching strategy aims to inspire other Africans to initiate successful enterprises and transformative community programs.

Professor Askwar Hilonga, after earning his doctorate in South Korea, returned to Tanzania with a vision of leveraging his research for the betterment of his community. In 2010, he embarked on inventing the Nanofilter, a cost-effective water purification system that he subsequently trademarked. The Nanofilter is a sand-based water filter employing nanotechnology to purify contaminated water. The sand captures debris, while the nanomaterial filter absorbs contaminants, resulting in water that is 99.9% clean after six filtrations. Notably, the filter operates without the need for electrical power, and its lifespan is around 5 years, requiring cleaning only every few weeks. Furthermore, the filtration systems developed by the Gongali Model can be customized to address specific regional pollutants, such as heavy metals in the Lake Victoria region and fluoride in the Rift Valley. This adaptable approach enhances the effectiveness of the Nanofilter in addressing diverse water quality challenges across different geographical areas (https://www.gongalimodel.com, accessed on 5 July 2022).

3.2. Characteristics of Respondents

3.2.1. CHEMA Case Study

A sample size of nine participants, consisting of five men and four women, at CHEMA participated in our study. The social entrepreneurs aged between 25 and 35 years old were three, between 35 and 45 years were two individuals, between 45 and 55 years old years old were three, and, lastly, between ages 55 and 65 was one respondent. The academic level was moderate since only two of the participants had a bachelor’s degree, three of them had a diploma, and the other four had a certificate. Work experience was also identified among respondents as follows: between 1 and 10 years were three respondents, between 10 and 20 years were three, and between 20 and 30 years were also three. Lastly, marital status was also identified; six respondents were married, two were single, and one was a widow.

3.2.2. Gongali Model Case Study

A sample size of 11 participants consisted of four men and seven women. The social entrepreneurs aged between 25 and 35 years old were five, between 35 and 45 years old were four individuals, and between 45 and 55 years old were two. The education levels consisted of one PhD holder, one master’s degree, one of the respondents had a bachelor’s degree, four respondents had a diploma, and the other four respondents had a certificate. Work experience at the Gongali Model case study was as follows. Between years 1 and 5 there were two respondents, between 5 and 10 there were six respondents, and, lastly, from 10 to 15 years of work experience there were three respondents. Lastly, marital status was also identified whereby five respondents were married and six were single.

3.3. Data Analysis

Following the open coding and continuous comparison technique proposed by Strauss and Corbin (1990), we systematically coded all data, including data-triangulated interviews and documents from selected cases in the field of social entrepreneurship. This process involved building upon the original descriptive codes outlined by Gioia et al. (2012). Drawing inspiration from Gioia et al. (2012), we developed concepts through an inductive process, engaging with the existing literature. This process was rooted in social entrepreneurs’ real-life experiences and their ability to establish connections across various scenarios and motivation forces during the early stages of establishing social firm projects. Our aim was to identify significant trends aligned with the researchers’ interpretation of their significance. To analyze the interview data thematically, we employed QSR NVivo 14 for content sorting alongside manual thematic content analysis. The authors systematically pursued inductive concept development throughout this methodological approach.

Firstly, each word was assigned a notion, and modifications were made as necessary to accurately place the analyzed data in the appropriate category. In line with the language themes communicated by the interviewees, we employed in vivo codes to encapsulate meaningful ideas (Corley and Gioia 2004).

Secondly, through the identification of concept similarities, axial coding was utilized to establish higher-level categories. Transitioning from first-order codes such as history, social needs, resource constraints, and lack of social education, we formulated second-order codes like “background and opportunity recognition”.

Thirdly, the core idea was selected from the axial coding process, and the theoretical categories of the second-order codes were employed to construct the final aggregate dimension. The correlation of emergent codes with participants’ observations was conducted through these three procedural steps.

Subsequently, the authors organized and structured their categories and analyses in preparation for the final analysis, leading to the emergence of final themes after data triangulation up to the saturation stage. The following themes emerged from the data, as presented below.

4. Empirical Findings and Discussion

The results of empirical research are presented and discussed based on the main research question: What are the motivation factors driving social entrepreneurs to engage in social entrepreneurship projects in Tanzania?

4.1. Motivation Factors for Social Entrepreneurs to Engage in Social Entrepreneurship Projects

The examination, based on interview data, observations, and secondary sources, uncovered various factors that drive social entrepreneurs to engage in social entrepreneurial projects in Tanzania. A cross-sectional study of the analyzed cases identified six key motivating factors influencing individuals’ motives to participate in social entrepreneurship initiatives, as follows: Background and opportunity recognition, Self-Motivation, Individuals’ rewards and fulfilment, Society transformation, Success by solving social issues, as well as philanthropic and compassion aspects. Below, we present contributions from participants highlighting these aspects, derived from comprehensive in-person interviews. The statements from individual respondents involved in the research were anonymized and translated verbatim. Each quotation is accompanied by a code (e.g., Se1), signifying the respondent type (Se, social entrepreneur), with the digits (e.g., #1) denoting the respondent’s ordinal number in the interview. The identified factors encompass various motivations for engagement in social entrepreneurial projects and are detailed as follows.

4.2. Background and Opportunity Recognition

Social entrepreneurs (1, 2, 6, and 9) from CHEMA all had rural agricultural backgrounds and reported experiencing difficulties in their immediate surroundings. The first group of social entrepreneurs revealed that they had engaged in community work before, but the tasks demanded a lot from them. The realization that they could leverage their business expertise to benefit others drove them toward social enterprise.

Another factor was the historical context, where challenges faced by people in their societies, such as environmental issues, gender imbalance, and insufficient access to food and clean water, motivated social entrepreneurs to engage in community activities. The participants’ past histories, backgrounds, and experiences, whether in their current environment or elsewhere, contributed to their assessment of the place and their vision for future projects.

“[….] With our community’s challenging history, we are dedicated to achieving our goals by promoting inclusivity across all racial, ethnic, religious, and ideological backgrounds. We firmly believe that such efforts contribute to the betterment of our society by addressing challenging areas, and these actions have demonstrated tangible progress in our social projects [….]”

(Se#1, Se#17, and Se#16)

“[. . .] Observing the improvement in the lives of others and experiencing their expressions of appreciation is what keeps me going. It motivates me to strive for a better position in the community. In our country, many people live below the poverty line, with low levels of education, inadequate access to quality medication, and insufficient shelter. Our goal is to address these challenges and ensure that all Tanzanians have their basic needs met. We focus on poverty alleviation-related projects to achieve this mission […]”

(Se#11 and Se#8)

4.3. Self-Motivation

Another driving factor for social entrepreneurship in Tanzania is the individual’s desire to make a difference. This desire can stem from a broader aspiration to impact the world, experiences abroad, or one’s upbringing in a particular faith, all serving as sources of inspiration. Entrepreneur 1 from the Gongali Model, for instance, attributed a graduate-level course in nanofiltration abroad as a major influence on his work in the social sector. Additionally, witnessing the devastating effects of contaminated water on young children’s stomach health motivated him to launch his nonprofit. This experience led to the idea of creating a similar initiative in Tanzania to provide access to safe drinking water for those in need.

Furthermore, three social entrepreneurs discussed the role of religion as a source of motivation in their efforts to address social issues in their communities, as noted below.

“[….] It’s not just about imparting our religious beliefs to people; we also need to educate them on preserving the environment. This education should be a part of their daily lives. We have successfully educated people on planting trees and maintaining a safe environment, including the use of clean and safe toilets. Through these actions, we can observe positive changes in our communities [….]”

(Se#15, Se#18, and Se#20)

4.4. Individuals’ Rewards and Fulfilment

The desire to be satisfied was mentioned by a few of the respondents as one of the key reasons why they participate in the social entrepreneurial projects that they perform in their day-to-day lives. In addition to the pursuit of personal fulfillment, it was commonly acknowledged that helping others and making a positive contribution to society were significant drivers of motivation.

“[….] The feeling of accomplishment when things go well in a large organization like this is tremendous, as we witness the tangible transformation of our society. I have published many research papers about Nano filters, and it was high time for me to come up with a practical solution for my community [….]”

(Se#2 and Se#10)

When asked about their feelings regarding social entrepreneurship projects, most of the interviewed social entrepreneurs expressed a sense of pride when witnessing the beneficial outcomes of their efforts and the impact of their work in the community. This response was given in relation to the question about how they feel about performing community projects.

“[….] In my opinion, success should be assessed based on the amount of energy we contribute to specific circumstances, and this evaluation should be customized for each individual case while remaining genuine. The positive outcomes of activities performed by our firm bring happiness not only to our team but to the entire society, and that is our main goal [….]”

(Se#6)

4.5. Society Transformation

The aspiration of social entrepreneurs to make a meaningful contribution to society was a key driving force behind the establishment of social firms. During the interview sessions, many social entrepreneurs expressed similar sentiments regarding their desire to transform their society, highlighting it as the main motivation for engaging in social entrepreneurship.

“[…]My goal was to contribute to the overall improvement of my community. I took on the responsibility of getting individuals involved and assessing the needs of others. I explored the common factors that contributed to their performance [….]”.

(Se #14 and Se #18)

“[…...]Making changes and impacting the lives of others in society often requires personal sacrifice. For example, time spent with family and friends, as well as personal projects, may need to be given up contributing to the betterment of society [….]”

(Se #1)

In the process of building initiatives based on the Gongali Model firm, social entrepreneurs one and ten made remarks that were remarkably similar, showcasing their shared passion and sense of duty to the community they were involved with.

“[……]We sacrificed family time, friends, and personal ambitions to contribute to society, and our efforts have had a positive influence on thousands of lives. Our society is recognizing and appreciating our efforts [……]”

(Se #19)

4.6. Success by Solving Social Issues

A focus on success through solving social problems emerged as one of the motivational factors, not only at the preliminary level of their projects but also during the progress achieved. All the owners and founders of the social firms exhibited this trait by expressing a strong desire to use their businesses to contribute significantly to their society. It is expected that social entrepreneurs will have an effect that leads to a wide spectrum of change throughout their entire community. The founders of the Gongali Model made the following observation, which was later confirmed by the entrepreneurs themselves during interview discussions.

“[….] When we initially launched this company, our progress went unnoticed. However, over time, we successfully addressed water challenges, especially for domestic use. We have provided water filters to numerous families in our community and are expanding to serve more individuals in need nationwide [….]”

(Se#9 and Se#13)

A social entrepreneur is someone who has created a profession out of addressing local and regional youth development, social betterment, and innovation. CHEMA and the Gongali Model firm have demonstrated innovative strategies to find solutions and enhance how social entrepreneurship and innovation may contribute to addressing development challenges in Tanzania and its neighboring regions.

4.7. Philanthropic and Compassion Aspects

It is remarkable to see how the combination of a desire to succeed and compassion contributes to social innovators focusing on initiatives that benefit others rather than solely pursuing individual profit. Through engaging with and uplifting the communities they aim to serve, social entrepreneurs build lasting innovations. Entrepreneurship in the philanthropic sector is characterized by a strong capacity for empathy and compassion, and individuals derive fulfilment from the act of helping others.

Some of the social entrepreneurs at the Gongali Model described how the initial social entrepreneurship business brought them immense satisfaction as families and elementary school kids eventually gained access to clean and safe water. This achievement was noteworthy, considering the challenges the community faced in accessing clean water.

“[. . ..] The most rewarding part of my work is witnessing individuals who have endured hardships getting much better. It seems like you also find great fulfilment in making a positive impact on the lives of individuals in your community, especially those who have faced hardships. Helping others and witnessing their improvement and happiness can indeed be a rewarding and fulfilling aspect of one’s work [……]”

(Se#5 and Se#7)

“[…..] We have been enthusiastic about social work and committed to making a difference in people’s lives ever since the days of establishing our company. During this time, we participated in a wide range of service projects. Recognizing the importance of imparting knowledge about environmental conservation to the upcoming cohort, we deemed it essential to educate them about their surroundings and the art of cultivating one’s sustenance [……]”

(Se#3)

“[…..] It all began with hope a conviction that everything is possible with a desire to make a difference in the lives of others. Our motivation to expand our projects originates from our excitement at the prospect of making a positive impact on the everyday lives of our fellow Tanzanians. [……]”

(Se#4)

Youth empowerment, innovations in society, and entrepreneurial initiatives are all outcomes that social innovators bring to the community level. The objective of these nonprofit social enterprises has demonstrated the desired motivation and the capacity of social entrepreneurship and innovation to address developmental issues in Tanzania.

The first CHEMA interview gave the impression that this kind of social motive is deeply rooted in the minds of social innovators through their engagement in various social activities. Some social entrepreneurs are born with an innate desire to help others, and they cultivate that inclination throughout their careers and life experiences. These individuals simply wish to contribute to the betterment of their society and bring about social changes by positively impacting the entire community.

5. Theoretical and Managerial Implications

5.1. Theoretical Implications

The present study contributes to the field of social entrepreneurship by examining the motivation of social entrepreneurs for engaging in various projects. It builds on previous conceptual research by providing empirical evidence at the individual, organizational, and project levels. While prior studies have mostly focused on the consequences of social entrepreneurship, specifically the social innovation itself, analyzing the favorable outcomes and societal repercussions of these inventions, this research delved into the motivations of individuals and organizations involved in diverse social entrepreneurial ventures from various perspectives.

Previous studies portrayed social entrepreneurs as heroic, selfless, and adept individuals driven by their pursuit of creating social benefit (Green and Sergeeva 2019), relying on anecdotal evidence of their success. In contrast, this research, based on interviews, demonstrates that not all social entrepreneurs can be characterized as uniformly successful, talented, or constantly enthusiastic about their initiatives.

Moreover, the data presented in this research suggest the existence of a unique and blended set of motivational components in social entrepreneurs. This could explain why business ventures choose to engage in social entrepreneurial projects over other types of projects or activities that may appear more profitable. These findings build on recent theories proposed by previous researchers where past-life events, high achievement orientation, stages in the life cycle of social enterprises, and the institutional environment are explained as key motivators leading to the establishment of social entrepreneurship (Pacut 2020; Wanyoike and Maseno 2021; Lehmen et al. 2023).

In our study data, themes such as Background and opportunity recognition, Self-motivation, Individuals’ rewards and fulfillment, Society transformation, Success through solving social issues, and Philanthropic and compassion aspects were strongly related to the establishment of various social entrepreneurship projects.

The findings of this study indicate that the motivations of numerous entrepreneurs in Tanzania for establishing their social enterprises are primarily attributed to pull factors. These elements collectively motivated entrepreneurs to create their own enterprises. This aligns with previous research focusing on the motivations of social entrepreneurs, a concept that has received inadequate attention (see also Gupta et al. 2020; Wanyoike and Maseno 2021; Lehmen et al. 2023). Our findings suggest a direct correlation between the inception of social entrepreneurial firms in developing economies and the motivations of the entrepreneurs. These motivations hinge upon various factors such as historical context, individual experiences, philanthropic inclinations, compassion, a dedicated focus on success, and the prevailing environmental context within which these entrepreneurs operate. Importantly, support for this correlation is echoed by other researchers, as evidenced by the works of Pacut (2020) and Wanyoike and Maseno (2021).

Moreover, our study found that personal experiences, background, and history are significantly contributing to an individual’s chances of becoming a social entrepreneur by establishing projects that aim at solving social issues. Social entrepreneurs are driven to action by incidents in their lives that expose them to a problem they care deeply about fixing or preventing. This was the evidence from previous researchers as well, for example, Elliott (2019) and Lehmen et al. (2023).

Theoretical consideration is currently being devoted to various aspects related to social entrepreneurship, including the concepts that are involved, the motives driving social entrepreneurs, and the process of establishing new ventures (Mair and Martí 2007). The understanding of motivation, as discussed by Kuratko et al. (2015), encompasses both push and pull factors of motivation, as well as the perspectives and characteristics of entrepreneurs. This research explored why entrepreneurs in Tanzania decided to take it upon themselves to start an enterprise with a social entrepreneurship initiative and innovation in their society.

In support of Pacut’s (2020) and Lehmen et al.’s (2023) findings on the motivation of social entrepreneurship in the establishment of social enterprises, we revealed that compassion and the enthusiasm to participate in social initiatives, as well as previous experiences of the entrepreneurs, have strong correlations with motivation factors on the establishment of social ventures in Tanzania. Those aspects have been supported by other previous researchers like Hervieux and Voltan (2016). Moreover, when it comes to understanding how various motivation factors affect social entrepreneurs as they formulate social initiatives in their communities, findings from previous studies using qualitative methods are comparable to those from Braga et al. (2014).

Our findings are an essential addition to social entrepreneurship theories and their contribution to overall societies in a wide range of regions, including other sub-Saharan countries. As most developing countries, including Tanzania, have historically endured challenging social issues, it is possible that the local social entrepreneurs that help those who are poor and disadvantaged have gone through some of the same challenges that those individuals have faced, for example, motivation through background, history, and opportunities for upcoming social entrepreneurs (Gupta et al. 2020).

The findings of this study contribute to the validation of arguments previously posited by researchers such as Elliott (2019) and Wanyoike and Maseno (2021), who emphasized the societal benefits associated with their own findings. The correlation between these findings and the assertions made by prior researchers underscores the significance of our study, offering support for the notion that our research contributes to the validation of motivations driving social entrepreneurs to engage in diverse entrepreneurial projects in developing countries. To comprehensively examine the establishment and development of social entrepreneurial projects, it is crucial to incorporate the broader context by investigating the diverse factors associated with motivation (Braga et al. 2014; Santos and Liguori 2019). It is a fact that the detailed context is where the greatest number of social entrepreneurial projects are established and developed. This study strengthens the theory by developing a model of the factors that motivate social entrepreneurs to establish enterprises with a beneficial effect on the populations that they serve based in Tanzania. See Figure 1 below that describes the themes that emerged from the research data. This demonstrates a synthesis of the main motivational factors discussed in this section, as key themes emerged from the data. It illustrates the relationship between social entrepreneurship motivation and engagement in social entrepreneurial projects.

Finally, the implications of the findings are significant for both theoretical understanding and practical application, as demonstrated earlier. The empirical investigation contributes to a better understanding of engagement in social entrepreneurship by exploring the variables that motivate the activities of social entrepreneurs. The significance of individuals’ engagement in social entrepreneurship should be comprehensively examined, considering a range of variables that influence their participation in social entrepreneurship initiatives. Simultaneously, the study expands the definition of social entrepreneurs as individuals who establish enterprises to achieve social goals rather than pursuing personal financial gains by highlighting the importance of additional influential factors such as philanthropy, compassion, and self-motivation.

5.2. Managerial Implications

The observed connection between entrepreneurs’ motivation and the establishment of social entrepreneurship ventures has managerial implications. Understanding the motivations of social entrepreneurs is crucial for implementing effective recruitment and support practices, as different types of social entrepreneurs have diverse needs throughout their journeys (Wanyoike and Maseno 2021). Managers in platforms focused on social innovation should possess expertise in coaching and managing various social entrepreneurs (Samuelsson and Witell 2022). For instance, incorporating sustainable and social objectives into local or regional development plans can aid in the motivation search stage for communitarians, influencing savings. The creation of local clusters, overseen by separate committees, has the potential to assist startup businesses in their early stages by enhancing their visibility, fostering connections with fellow entrepreneurs, and facilitating engagement with potential stakeholders as they plan the launch of their social entrepreneurial projects.

The role of motivation is inherently pivotal across all stages of social entrepreneurship initiatives, assuming a particularly crucial significance during the initial phases of establishing ventures within the realm of social entrepreneurship. Individuals proficient in discerning solutions that bear social impact are confronted with a challenge concerning their confidence in the motivational underpinnings of their entrepreneurial endeavors. Armed with motivational factors and a reservoir of knowledge, these individuals exhibit a predisposition towards embracing change as they inaugurate their initiatives, demonstrating a receptivity to seeking guidance from external partners. Such openness may serve to augment the practicality of their innovations by assimilating insights derived from seasoned entrepreneurs (Pacut 2020; Lehmen et al. 2023).

6. Conclusions

The main objective of this qualitative study was to gain a deeper understanding of the factors that motivate social entrepreneurs in Tanzania and to explore the connections between various social enterprises and other ventures worldwide responsible for significant social innovations. The researchers specifically focused on conducting interviews with CHEMA and the Gongali Model social enterprises, considering these businesses as successful examples of social firms in Tanzania. The aim was to provide insights for other social enterprises to learn about the entrepreneurs’ motives for creating their firms and their perspectives on what it takes to be successful in this sector. Additionally, the study aimed to offer insights for other social ventures to understand the entrepreneurs’ perspectives on models that can be successful in creating social impact.

To be more precise, their focus was on improving the lives of disadvantaged individuals, including children attending primary schools in their region, unemployed youth, and adults, addressing gender imbalance and environmental concerns and supporting low-income families. Based on themes derived from the interviews, it was observed that most social entrepreneurs did not have a background or professional expertise in entrepreneurship. However, they were motivated to establish social entrepreneurship firms with various projects aimed at solving social issues.

Moreover, our research makes a substantial academic contribution to the field of social entrepreneurship by offering evidence on the motivating factors behind social enterprises. It draws from empirical evidence and synthesizes findings from previous studies. Furthermore, it enhances our comprehension of social entrepreneurs in general, particularly in the context of Tanzania, and establishes connections between these findings and the projects and activities of social enterprises. From a management perspective, the study aids social entrepreneurs and dynamic actors in the impact business ecosystem in gaining a clearer understanding of their position in terms of business development. This information is valuable for entrepreneurs to analyze and determine the most effective strategies.

Furthermore, policymakers in developing nations can benefit from this research by gaining insights into the various types and locations of social enterprises, along with the distinctive characteristics that set them apart. This understanding can then be applied to support training and development initiatives aimed at enhancing the effectiveness of social enterprises (Wanyoike and Maseno 2021).

To gain a deeper understanding of the motivations and project management strategies employed by entrepreneurs operating on different social and philanthropic projects, it is recommended that future studies explore this topic more extensively. We propose further research to validate the suggested model by applying it to additional case studies in diverse geographical settings, thereby expanding both the theoretical and practical horizons of social business ventures. Exploring the potential sector-specific applications of the model could also be a valuable avenue for investigation in such research. Moreover, social entrepreneurship theory and practice could benefit from examining gender-specific disparities in motivation, considering the experiences of male, female, and non-binary entrepreneurs.

Finally, our study has a few limitations. Firstly, the use of a qualitative method in the analysis implies that the conclusions may not be easily generalized. With a small sample size (20 participants and only two case studies), broad conclusions about Tanzania’s social entrepreneurship cannot be drawn. Additionally, the study’s geographical focus limits its global applicability, as it primarily pertains to the Tanzanian context and experiences. Thirdly, the institutions under scrutiny may pose challenges in terms of quantification, encompassing aspects such as outward appearances, internal consistency, and narrative impact.