Associations between Attention and Implicit Associative Learning in Healthy Adults: The Role of Cortisol and Salivary Alpha-Amylase Responses to an Acute Stressor
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Participants
2.2. Cognitive Testing
2.3. Stress Induction and Control Condition
2.4. Saliva Sampling and Analysis
2.5. General Procedure
2.6. Statistical Data Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Baseline Characteristics
3.2. Stress Response
3.3. Memory Performance
3.4. Attentional Time Course
3.5. Associations between Memory Recall and the Stress Response
3.5.1. All Participants
3.5.2. Pre- vs. Post-Stress Group
3.5.3. Responder Groups
3.6. Associations between Attention and Implicit Learning
3.6.1. All Participants
3.6.2. Pre- vs. Post-Stress Group
3.6.3. Responder Groups
4. Discussion
4.1. Summary and Discussion of Main Findings
4.2. Summary and Discussion of Further Findings
4.3. Physiological Responses to the Stress and the Control Task
4.4. Limitations and Directions for Future Research
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Overall (N = 81) | WWT (N = 12) | SECPT (N = 69) | Pre-Stress (N = 37) | Post-Stress (N = 44) | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
N | % | N | % | N | % | N | % | N | % | |
Female | 56 | 69.1 | 6 | 50 | 50 | 72.5 | 27 | 73 | 29 | 65.9 |
Smokers | 2 | 2.5 | 1 | 8.3 | 1 | 1.4 | 2 | 5.4 | 0 | 0 |
M | SD | M | SD | M | SD | M | SD | M | SD | |
Age (years) | 21.8 | 3.9 | 22.8 | 3.6 | 21.6 | 4.0 | 21.9 | 4.0 | 21.6 | 4.0 |
BMI 1 (kg/m2) | 22.1 | 2.8 | 23.3 | 3.4 | 21.8 | 2.6 | 22.3 | 2.9 | 21.8 | 2.7 |
BL stress rating | 2.8 | 1.3 | 2.8 | 1.7 | 2.8 | 1.3 | 2.6 | 1.5 | 2.9 | 1.2 |
BL sAA 2 (U/mL) | 109.7 | 71.0 | 100.4 | 49.8 | 111.4 | 74.2 | 108.6 | 68.0 | 110.7 | 74.1 |
BL cortisol (nmol/L) | 2.9 | 2.0 | 3.6 | 1.9 | 2.7 | 2.0 | 3.0 | 2.3 | 2.8 | 1.7 |
BL Stroop reaction time (ms) | 677.3 | 142.7 | 711.1 | 152.9 | 671.4 | 141.2 | 676.2 | 149.8 | 678.2 | 138.2 |
BL Stroop errors | 0.8 | 1.0 | 0.8 | 1.1 | 0.8 | 1.0 | 0.8 | 1.1 | 0.7 | 0.9 |
SECPT 1 | WWT 2 | N | |
---|---|---|---|
Non-responders | 9 | 3 | 12 |
Only sAA responders | 17 | 8 | 25 |
Only cortisol responders | 16 | 1 | 17 |
sAA-and-cortisol responders | 27 | 0 | 27 |
Overall | 69 | 12 | 81 |
Overall | Non-Responders | sAA-and-Cortisol Responders | Only Cortisol Responders | Only sAA Responders | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
(N = 81) | (N = 12) | (N = 27) | (N = 17) | (N = 25) | ||||||
Mean | SD | Mean | SD | Mean | SD | Mean | SD | Mean | SD | |
Rating s1 | 2.8 | 1.3 | 2.7 | 1.5 | 2.7 | 1.4 | 2.9 | 1.3 | 2.8 | 1.3 |
Rating s2 | 3.4 | 1.7 | 2.8 | 1.4 | 3.0 | 1.6 | 3.7 | 1.7 | 4.0 | 1.9 |
Rating s3 | 3.8 | 2.0 | 3.3 | 1.9 | 3.5 | 1.7 | 4.8 | 2.2 | 3.6 | 2.2 |
Rating s4 | 3.1 | 1.5 | 2.8 | 1.1 | 3.0 | 1.4 | 3.8 | 2.0 | 2.9 | 1.3 |
Rating s5 | 2.6 | 1.5 | 2.3 | 1.1 | 2.4 | 1.4 | 3.3 | 2.0 | 2.4 | 1.3 |
Rating s6 | 2.4 | 1.4 | 2.2 | 0.8 | 2.1 | 1.1 | 2.9 | 1.7 | 2.3 | 1.5 |
Rating s7 | 2.2 | 1.2 | 1.9 | 1.0 | 2.0 | 1.1 | 2.5 | 1.4 | 2.2 | 1.1 |
Rating s8 | 2.0 | 1.1 | 1.9 | 1.2 | 1.9 | 0.9 | 2.2 | 1.2 | 2.1 | 1.2 |
Rating s9 | 1.9 | 0.9 | 2.0 | 1.0 | 1.7 | 0.7 | 2.2 | 1.1 | 1.8 | 1.0 |
Rating s10 | 1.9 | 1.0 | 2.1 | 1.4 | 1.7 | 0.8 | 1.9 | 1.1 | 1.8 | 1.0 |
Rating s11 | 1.7 | 0.8 | 1.8 | 1.0 | 1.7 | 0.8 | 1.6 | 0.7 | 1.7 | 0.9 |
sAA s1 | 109.7 | 71.0 | 81.4 | 47.5 | 108.3 | 57.4 | 136.8 | 96.2 | 106.5 | 71.3 |
sAA s2 | 94.2 | 71.2 | 107.0 | 68.5 | 79.2 | 46.5 | 137.7 | 101.9 | 74.7 | 58.5 |
sAA s3 | 124.0 | 79.6 | 90.7 | 63.5 | 138.7 | 64.7 | 112.9 | 94.5 | 131.6 | 88.6 |
sAA s4 | 119.7 | 81.6 | 82.0 | 36.7 | 125.2 | 70.7 | 149.0 | 115.9 | 112.0 | 76.0 |
sAA s5 | 106.2 | 71.7 | 68.0 | 31.4 | 109.6 | 64.9 | 138.8 | 93.9 | 98.6 | 68.3 |
sAA s6 | 89.7 | 61.4 | 56.6 | 34.9 | 96.6 | 56.6 | 111.1 | 76.2 | 83.5 | 60.7 |
sAA s7 | 102.6 | 67.4 | 79.2 | 46.0 | 105.4 | 52.9 | 136.6 | 101.7 | 87.6 | 53.8 |
sAA s8 | 104.3 | 69.0 | 81.2 | 41.6 | 106.0 | 55.7 | 132.9 | 100.2 | 94.1 | 63.6 |
sAA s9 | 106.2 | 74.6 | 83.2 | 52.8 | 105.2 | 53.8 | 145.2 | 116.6 | 91.8 | 59.4 |
sAA s10 | 93.2 | 70.0 | 91.3 | 57.7 | 88.4 | 54.2 | 129.1 | 104.8 | 74.7 | 54.8 |
sAA s11 | 107.7 | 72.9 | 91.9 | 76.0 | 107.0 | 55.6 | 145.8 | 103.6 | 90.0 | 55.7 |
Cortisol s1 | 2.9 | 2.0 | 3.3 | 2.5 | 2.4 | 1.4 | 3.8 | 2.3 | 2.5 | 1.7 |
Cortisol s2 | 2.7 | 1.9 | 2.9 | 1.8 | 2.1 | 1.2 | 4.0 | 2.8 | 2.2 | 1.4 |
Cortisol s3 | 3.0 | 2.6 | 3.1 | 2.4 | 2.4 | 1.4 | 5.0 | 4.1 | 2.3 | 1.5 |
Cortisol s4 | 3.2 | 3.3 | 2.6 | 1.6 | 2.6 | 1.6 | 5.8 | 6.0 | 2.2 | 1.3 |
Cortisol s5 | 4.2 | 4.4 | 2.5 | 1.6 | 4.5 | 2.9 | 7.8 | 7.6 | 2.3 | 1.4 |
Cortisol s6 | 5.1 | 5.3 | 2.3 | 1.1 | 6.7 | 4.1 | 8.8 | 8.4 | 2.2 | 1.4 |
Cortisol s7 | 6.0 | 6.7 | 2.5 | 1.4 | 7.9 | 4.9 | 11.2 | 10.8 | 2.1 | 1.3 |
Cortisol s8 | 5.3 | 5.5 | 2.4 | 1.2 | 6.9 | 4.9 | 9.8 | 7.8 | 1.9 | 1.1 |
Cortisol s9 | 5.2 | 5.5 | 2.9 | 2.4 | 6.7 | 4.9 | 9.3 | 8.2 | 1.9 | 1.1 |
Cortisol s10 | 4.6 | 4.8 | 2.4 | 1.7 | 5.6 | 3.7 | 8.6 | 7.4 | 1.7 | 0.9 |
Cortisol s11 | 4.1 | 3.9 | 2.2 | 1.3 | 4.8 | 3.2 | 7.5 | 5.5 | 1.7 | 0.8 |
Overall | Non-Responders | sAA-and-Cortisol Responders | Only Cortisol Responders | Only sAA Responders | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
(N = 81) | (N = 12) | (N = 27) | (N = 17) | (N = 25) | ||||||
Mean | SD | Mean | SD | Mean | SD | Mean | SD | Mean | SD | |
RT 1 (ms) | 677.3 | 142.7 | 706.8 | 154.3 | 652.7 | 108.6 | 729.9 | 212.9 | 653.9 | 101.5 |
RT 2 (ms) | 654.7 | 128.0 | 682.3 | 134.4 | 637.6 | 87.9 | 708.7 | 198.9 | 623.2 | 88.1 |
RT 3 (ms) | 624.8 | 112.9 | 656.5 | 130.9 | 598.3 | 71.7 | 673.6 | 169.9 | 604.8 | 80.4 |
RT 4 (ms) | 606.7 | 93.2 | 631.9 | 97.0 | 585.4 | 62.0 | 650.7 | 147.9 | 587.8 | 57.8 |
RT 5 (ms) | 602.8 | 89.2 | 606.8 | 80.6 | 585.4 | 68.5 | 648.2 | 138.8 | 588.7 | 60.0 |
RT 6 (ms) | 604.3 | 100.9 | 630.8 | 108.8 | 576.7 | 70.0 | 642.6 | 147.6 | 595.2 | 79.8 |
RT 7 (ms) | 594.2 | 91.8 | 618.9 | 87.5 | 565.4 | 53.5 | 637.2 | 152.9 | 584.4 | 56.9 |
RT 8 (ms) | 590.7 | 88.6 | 614.9 | 100.5 | 561.9 | 61.1 | 626.6 | 135.4 | 585.9 | 55.8 |
RT 9 (ms) | 588.9 | 84.8 | 594.6 | 64.6 | 577.5 | 60.9 | 629.0 | 135.2 | 571.4 | 65.2 |
Errors 1 | 0.8 | 1.0 | 0.8 | 1.0 | 0.7 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.1 | 0.6 | 1.0 |
Errors 2 | 0.8 | 1.0 | 0.8 | 1.2 | 0.6 | 0.8 | 1.1 | 1.5 | 0.8 | 0.8 |
Errors 3 | 0.8 | 0.9 | 0.4 | 0.5 | 0.9 | 1.0 | 1.1 | 1.0 | 0.8 | 0.9 |
Errors 4 | 0.8 | 1.0 | 0.4 | 0.9 | 0.7 | 1.1 | 1.3 | 1.2 | 0.6 | 0.7 |
Errors 5 | 1.0 | 1.2 | 0.8 | 1.2 | 1.0 | 1.1 | 1.6 | 1.6 | 0.6 | 0.8 |
Errors 6 | 1.0 | 1.1 | 0.7 | 1.2 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.1 | 1.4 | 1.0 | 1.0 |
Errors 7 | 1.0 | 1.1 | 1.3 | 1.6 | 0.9 | 1.0 | 1.2 | 1.0 | 0.8 | 0.9 |
Errors 8 | 1.0 | 1.1 | 1.1 | 1.2 | 0.9 | 1.2 | 0.9 | 1.1 | 1.0 | 1.2 |
Errors 9 | 0.9 | 1.0 | 0.7 | 0.8 | 1.0 | 1.2 | 1.2 | 1.3 | 0.8 | 0.7 |
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Becker, L.; Rohleder, N. Associations between Attention and Implicit Associative Learning in Healthy Adults: The Role of Cortisol and Salivary Alpha-Amylase Responses to an Acute Stressor. Brain Sci. 2020, 10, 544. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci10080544
Becker L, Rohleder N. Associations between Attention and Implicit Associative Learning in Healthy Adults: The Role of Cortisol and Salivary Alpha-Amylase Responses to an Acute Stressor. Brain Sciences. 2020; 10(8):544. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci10080544
Chicago/Turabian StyleBecker, Linda, and Nicolas Rohleder. 2020. "Associations between Attention and Implicit Associative Learning in Healthy Adults: The Role of Cortisol and Salivary Alpha-Amylase Responses to an Acute Stressor" Brain Sciences 10, no. 8: 544. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci10080544