The Potential Health Benefits of Gallic Acid: Therapeutic and Food Applications
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Chemical Structure and Various Sources
3. Identification and Quantification Techniques
3.1. Chromatography Techniques
3.1.1. High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC)
3.1.2. Gas Chromatography (GC)
3.1.3. High-Performance Thin-Layer Chromatography (HPTLC)
3.2. Capillary Electrophoresis (CE)
3.3. Spectroscopic Techniques
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR)
3.4. Other Techniques
4. Biological and Therapeutic Properties
4.1. Antibacterial Activity
4.1.1. Modification of Cytoplasmic Membrane Function
4.1.2. Disruption of Intracellular Functions
Sample/Matrix Type | Bacterial Strains | Antibacterial Assay | Results | Mechanism of Action | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
GA-grafted chitosan | Staphylococcus aureus Bacillus subtilis Bacillus cereus Enterococcus faecalis Listeria monocytogenes Escherichia coli Klebsiella pneumoniae Pseudomonas aeruginosa Salmonella typhimurium Shigella flexneri | Broth dilution method Time–kill experiment against E. coli and S. aureus OM and IM permeabilization assay | MIC values from unmodified chitosan are 64–128 μg/mL against Gram-positive bacteria and 512–1024 μg/mL against Gram-negative bacteria while MIC values from GA-grafted chitosan are 16 to 64 μg/mL against Gram-positive bacteria and 128 to 512 μg/mL against Gram-negative bacteria. GA-grafted chitosan (I) at MIC suppressed both E. coli bacterial growth for 24 h and S. aureus bacteria. Moreover, over the MIC values, no viable cells were observed. OM and IM permeabilization experiments indicated that GA-crafted chitosan influenced the integrity of the membrane | Disruption of the cell membranes by GA-crafted chitosan. S. aureus and E. coli cells undergo cell membrane damage resulting in the release of their cellular components into the surrounding environment, becoming finally empty | [110] |
3D chitosan–GA complexes | E. coli S. aureus | Broth dilution method | 3D chitosan–GA complexes demonstrated a higher antimicrobial capacity than 3D chitosan alone, with an inhibition percentage of around 83% more than 3D chitosan alone, regardless of the bacterial strain and concentration used, indicating that the adsorption of GA effectively increases the antimicrobial activity of 3D chitosan | ND | [103] |
Native pectin (Na-Pe) acylated with GA (Ac-Pe) | E. coli S. aureus | OD method | The inhibition rate of the pectin against E. coli and S. aureus improved from 2.93% and 8.92% (Na-Pe) to 26.95% and 42.18% (Ac1-Pe) and 31.56% and 47.87% (Ac2-Pe), respectively | ND | [104] |
GA-loaded ovalbumin (OVA)–chitosan (CS) nanoparticles | Morganella morganii E. coli | Plate count method | The number of M. morganii was 1.7 × 109 CFU/mL for pectin film, 8.7 × 108 CFU/mL for GA–pectin film, 5.5 × 108 CFU/mL for pectin film with OVA/CS nanoparticles, and 3.2 × 108 for GA-loaded OVA/CS nanoparticles. On the other hand, compared with pure pectin film (2.7 × 1010 CFU/mL), the pectin film with GA-loaded OVA/CS nanoparticles (5.8 × 109 CFU/mL) could retard the growth of E. coli Moreover, the quantity of histamine (toxic compound produced during food spoilage) was also measured, showing that the growth rate of this amine in salmon fillets treated with the pectin coating with GA-loaded OVA/CS nanoparticles was the lowest (51.6%) compared with the control group (140.0%) | ND | [105] |
Chitosan (Ch) and zinc oxide nanoparticle-loaded gallic acid films, (Ch-ZnO@gal | B. subtilis E. coli | Agar well diffusion assay | The results of the antibacterial activity of Ch-ZnO@gal revealed that the antimicrobial activity is linearly related to the amount of GA in the nanoparticles, Ch-ZnO@gal3 (70 mg of ZnO@gal) being the most efficient film against both B. subtilis and E. coli bacteria | The released ROS from the ZnO@gal, together with Zn2+ ions, attack the negatively charged cell wall, which leads to leakage and ultimately death of bacteria | [121] |
PVDF-grafted GA (PVDF-g-PGAL) | S. aureus E. coli | Plate growth inhibition assay | M0 (unmodified PVDF) showed minimal or no inhibition zones, indicating no antibacterial activity. In contrast, M3 (PVDF-grafted GA) showed clear zones of inhibition around the membrane, indicating antibacterial activity against E. coli and S. aureus. Furthermore, M3-SO3Na (PVDF-grafted GA + sodium sulphonate) showed higher inhibition zones compared to M3, due to the increased hydrophilicity of the membrane | The hydrophilic membrane reduces the chances of bacterial colonies establishing themselves and proliferating on its surface. In addition, hydrophilic surfaces attract water molecules, creating a thin aqueous layer on the membrane surface. This layer can inhibit bacterial adhesion and biofilm formation, as bacteria prefer to adhere to dry surfaces | [122] |
Commercially obtained GA | K. pneumoniae | Broth dilution method | K. pneumoniae growth was reduced at 5 and 10 mM GA concentrations, but not at 2.5 mM | GA may affect the iron availability in K. pneumoniae, thus possibly repressing the cps transcription (the inhibition in the production of capsules reduces bacterial virulence) | [123] |
Commercially obtained GA | E. coli P. aeruginosa S. aureus L. monocytogenes | Broth dilution method, physicochemical characterization of the bacterial surfaces | GA had antimicrobial activity against the bacteria tested, with a MIC of 1500 mg/mL for E. coli, 500 mg/mL for P. aeruginosa, 1750 mg/mL for S. aureus, and 2000 mg/mL for L. monocytogenes. In addition, GA also had bactericidal activity due to the MBC values for GA: 5000 mg/mL for E. coli, 500 mg/mL for P. aeruginosa, 5250 mg/mL for S. aureus, and 5500 mg/mL for L. monocytogenes | GA led to irreversible changes in membrane properties (charge, intra- and extracellular permeability, and physicochemical properties) through hydrophobicity changes, a decrease in negative surface charge, and the occurrence of local ruptures or pore formation in the cell membranes, with a consequent leakage of essential intracellular constituents | [124] |
Commercially obtained GA | S. flexneri | - Broth dilution method - Time-dependent killing assay Antibacterial assays to elucidate the mechanism of action: viability assay, integrity of cell membrane, FESEM analysis | - GA showed a MIC value of 2 mg/mL and MBC value of 8 mg/mL against Sh. Flexneri. It showed that GA led to inhibitory effects, which was evidenced by reduced cell viability, destroyed cell membranes, and changes in bacterial morphology | GA effectively inhibited Sh. flexneri activity and its biofilm formation by regulating the expression of the mdoH gene and the OpgH protein (mutations in mdoH that affect OpgH function may reduce bacterial virulence) | [125] |
Commercially obtained GA | Proteus spp. E. coli Pseudomonas spp. Salmonella spp. Streptococcus spp. S. aureus | Bacterial growth inhibition assay with OD measurement Petri dish biofilm assay Measurement of cell biomass concentration and EPS quantification | Different concentrations (1–200 mg/L) of GA showed antimicrobial effects by reducing the growth of single and multispecies bacteria (12–86%). Higher concentrations (100–200 mg/L) of GA had prominent inhibitory effects on biofilm formation. Further, GA (20–200 mg/L) exhibited a 93.43% biomass reduction and 88.6% EPS (polysaccharide) reduction | GA can reduce biofilm formation and EPS, where it is suspected to be the major reason of biofilm development | [126] |
Commercially obtained GA | Streptococcus mutans | Broth dilution method Antibiofilm assays (pH drop test and proton permeability test) | GA showed a MIC value at 250 μg/mL, although GA did not inhibit the adherence of S. mutans in sub-MIC values. Regarding the antibiofilm assay, GA showed antimicrobial activity, reducing the number of viable cells ( vs. ). Moreover, GA sensitized the cells to acidification, thereby reducing the glycolysis and acid production in the biofilm | The biofilms treated with GA showed a different architecture–structure: less compact and less dense due to a reduction in the synthesis of glucans (produced by a downregulated expression of gtfB, gtfC, and gtfD genes in the biofilms). These changes in the biofilm structure occurred because of the bactericidal activity, reduction of soluble alkaline glucans, and acidogenicity of S. mutans by GA | [127] |
Commercially obtained GA | Paenibacillus larvae | Microdilution method Agar well diffusion assay Spore germination assay | The MIC and MBC values of GA against P. larvae were 125 and 250 μg/mL GA (200 mg/mL) produced an average inhibition halo of 17.7 ± 0.39 mm against P. larvae in the agar well diffusion assay. In the presence of 125 and 250 μg/mL GA, spore germination rates were reduced to 83.9% and 18.7%, respectively | GA resulted in the leakage of proteins and nucleic acids (vital intracellular components of the bacteria), leading to bacterial death. Moreover, GA-mediated membrane and intracellular damage, together with its capacity for restricting biofilm formation, increase bacterial susceptibility to other antibacterial agents and eventually cause lethal effects | [128] |
4.1.3. Programmed Cell Death (PCD)
4.2. Antioxidant Activity
4.3. Anticancer Mechanisms of GA
4.4. Antiviral Activity
4.5. Anti-Alzheimer Activity
4.6. Anti-Inflammatory
4.7. Anti-Diabetes
Model | Condition | Main Findings | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
Anti-inflammatory | |||
Rats | In vivo | - Dose-dependent decreases in IL-6 and TNF-α levels. | [250] |
Suppressing NF-κB signaling pathway in IPEC-J2 cells | In vitro | - In IPEC-J2 cells, GA pretreatment significantly decreased the elevated expression of tumor necrosis factor-α and interleukin-8 genes induced by LPS. | [26] |
Control inflammation in NAFLD and NASH | In vitro | - By activating AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) in HepG2 cells, GA reduced the fat accumulation induced by palmitic acid. | [251] |
Nrf2 antioxidant response element signaling pathway | In vitro and in vivo | - The PM10 groups exhibited a substantial increase in epithelial permeability and inflammatory markers. - Additionally, there was a notable reduction in the expression of Nrf2 and its upstream regulator genes. | [147] |
Mice, suppressed interleukin-33 and group 2 innate lymphoid cells | - | - GA was found to lower IL-13 and IL-5 levels in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) and to reduce IL-33 expression in lung tissue. This effect is accomplished by inhibiting MyD88 expression and downregulating NF-κB signaling pathways, leading to a reduction in IL-33 production. | [252] |
Al2O3-induced myocardial injury | - | - ↓ CPK, LDH, CK-MB, MDA, LDL, TNF-α, and TG - ↑ SOD, HDL, CAT, and GSH | [253] |
STZ-induced oxidative stress in testis of rats | - | ↓ TNF-α, NOS2, VEGF, and MDA | [254] |
Antidiabetic | |||
Mice, enhances insulin sensitivity and glucose transporters via Akt and PPAR-γ signaling pathways. | 2–20 µM | - GA treatment enhanced insulin sensitivity by activating the Akt signaling pathway rather than the AMPK signaling pathway. | [255] |
Mice, enhances lipid profile, glycemic and liver function | 8.436 mg | - Promotes the repair of tissue damage in the pancreas and liver. - GA regulates autophagy in a diabetic cell model using Rin-5F cells. | [256] |
Mice | 50 mg/kg | - GA regulated lipid peroxidation (measured by TBARS) and antioxidant enzymes (GPX, superoxide dismutase, and catalase) in the liver and kidney, which are affected by diabetes-related complications caused by hyperglycemia. | [257] |
- Mice 4- and 9-month-old groups - APPswe/PS1dE9 transgenic | 30 mg/kg through gavage | - LTP - Aβ1–42 aggregation - Cognitive deficits - Expression of synaptic marker proteins | [258] |
STZ-induced diabetic rat | 20 mg/kg | - Reduces TNF-α levels, while increasing the upregulation of adiponectin and PPARγ mRNA. | [259] |
Rat, Aβ hippocampal injection | 50, 100, 200 mg/kg | - Hippocampal LTP | [260] |
Pheochromocytoma12 cells | GA: Aβ 2.0: 1.0 M | - Toxicity - K-CN fibril formation | [261] |
Mice, scopolamine-induced amnesia | 10 mg/kg | - AChE activity - Transfer latency in the elevated plus maze (EPM) test - Duration spent in the target quadrant during the Morris water maze (MWM) test | [262] |
Rat, i.p. injection of TMT 8 mg/kg | 50, 100 mg/kg | - Hippocampal level of TNF-a - Hippocampal level of BDNF | [263] |
Mice, via mTOR/PPARγ/AMPK signaling | 3 mg | - Decreased expression levels of p-AMPK and increased levels of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ), LOX-1, NF-κB, COX-2, and p-mTOR. | [236] |
4.8. Anti-Obesity
4.9. Anti-Hypertensive
5. Food Applications
5.1. Active Packaging Systems
5.1.1. Fish and Seafood Products
Food Products | Film/Coating Matrix | GA Concentration | Other Active Compounds | Storage Conditions | Highlights | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Fish and seafood products | ||||||
Japanese sea bass (Lateolabrax japonicus) fillets | Pectin | 5% (w/v) | - | 20 days, 4 °C | □ Lower TVB-N, lipid oxidation, and total sulfhydryl groups □ The coated samples showed the highest sensory quality rating | [282] |
CS | 15 mM | PA | 10 days, 4 °C | □ CS-grafted GA showed a higher GR (110.82 mg GA/g) than CS-grafted PA (62.63 mg PA/g) □ Higher thermal, rheological, and antioxidant properties than pure CS □ Delayed the deterioration of texture, color, and sensory quality | [283] | |
Tilapia (Orechromis niloticus) fillets | PE + CS | 1% (w/w) | - | 14 days, 4 °C | □ Higher antioxidant and antimicrobial activities □ Inhibited TVC and TVB-N □ Lower TBARS value on day 14 | [284] |
Collagen + zein | 1–10% (w/w) | - | 10 days, 4 °C | □ The electrospun fibers exhibited a smooth nanostructure with no beads □ GA formed hydrogen bonds with the protein matrix □ Prolonged the shelf life of the fillets for at least two days, especially at a concentration of 8% | [285] | |
Pacific mackerel (Pneumatophorus japonicus) fillets | CS | 5% (w/v) | - | 12 days, 4 °C | □ Inhibited protein decomposition, nucleotide breakdown, microbial growth, and lipid oxidation up to 6 days □ Delayed the deterioration of sensory quality | [286] |
Horse mackerel (Trachurus trachurus) fillets | 10 wt% | - | 14 days, 4 °C | □ Decreased microbial growth in more than two log cycles □ Lower TVB-N and TBARS values | [287] | |
Yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares) fillets | Zein + gelatin | 1 g | PL | 15 days, 4 °C | □ Higher average diameter with well-distributed morphology □ Improved thermal, antioxidant, and antimicrobial properties □ The combined films effectively inhibited TVC, TVB-N, lipid oxidation, and texture deterioration up to 3 days | [288] |
Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) fillets | Gelatin + CS | 0.2% (w/v) | CO | 15 days, 4 °C | □ Higher antioxidant and antimicrobial activities □ The combined coatings prolonged the shelf life of the fillets up to 5 days | [289] |
Grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idellus) fillets | Agarose | 0.0350–0.1373 g | - | 15 days, 4 °C | □ GA was grafted onto the C6-OH of D-galactose in agarose, with a highest GR of 13.73% □ Higher antioxidant and antimicrobial activities □ Lower viscosity, gel strength, and gelling temperature □ Inhibited microbial growth and lipid oxidation | [31] |
Meat products | ||||||
Pork | CS | 5 mL | - | 18 days, 4 °C | □ Higher antioxidant and antimicrobial activities □ Lower TVB-N and TBARS values □ Prolonged the shelf life of the pork meat from 6 to 18 days | [290] |
0.2 and 0.4% (w/w) | - | 20 days, 4 °C | □ Higher antioxidant activity □ Lower lipid oxidation and myoglobin oxidation □ Improved the safety and quality of samples in MAP environment | [291] | ||
Collagen + CS | NS | PL | 15 days, 4 °C | □ Improved structural and UV barrier properties □ Higher antioxidant and antimicrobial activities □ Prolonged the shelf life of the pork meat by approximately 5 days | [292] | |
CYS + CS | 40 g | - | One day, 25 °C | □ Better light transmittance and thinner thickness □ Improved the tensile strength □ Improved the quality of pork during storage compared to PE film packaging | [293] | |
Beef | CS | 0.1 and 0.3% (w/v) | - | 21 days, 4 °C | □ Reduced spoilage bacteria count, TVB-N, and TBARS □ Delayed lipid oxidation and color deterioration | [294] |
Gelatin + CS | 0.5% | CGA and RES | 12 days, 4 °C | □ Lower TVC, TVB-N, and TBARS values □ The combined coatings prolonged the shelf life of beef at least 3–6 days | [295] | |
CA | NS | ZIF-8 | 12 days, 4 °C | □ Improved mechanical strength and UV barrier properties □ Reduced WVP, MC, and SR □ Higher antioxidant and antimicrobial activities | [296] | |
Fruits and vegetables | ||||||
Strawberry | CS | 15 mM | - | 14 days, 4 °C, under UV-A light | □ Higher reduction of E. coli compared to the control after 180 min exposure to UV-A □ The photo-irradiated coatings did not significantly affect the mold decay incidence in strawberries □ The firmness value did not show significant differences during storage | [297] |
Banana | mPLA | 0.0301 g | - | 14 days, 25 °C | □ Improved mechanical and antioxidant properties □ Retained the firmness and green peel color of bananas after storing for 14 days | [298] |
Mango | CS or CG | 0.075 or 0.15% (w/v) | - | 14 days, 20 °C, 60–70% RH | □ Lower pH, TSS, and TSS/acid ratio □ Higher antioxidant activity (lower IC50 values) after one week of storage □ Delayed ripening during two weeks of storage | [299] |
Cherry tomato | CS | GA/CS ratio of 1:3 (w/w) | - | 10 days, 15 °C | □ Improved antioxidant activities in scavenging hydroxyl, DPPH, and superoxide anion radicals □ Protected the ascorbate–glutathione cycle of cherry tomatoes □ Inhibited enzymatic browning | [300] |
PLA-PBAT | 1, 5, and 10 wt% | TA | 20 days, 25 °C | □ Improved tensile strength and UV barrier properties □ High antimicrobial activity against E. coli and L. monocytogenes, especially for those containing 10 wt% GA □ Enhanced the shelf life of cherry tomatoes for up to 20 days of storage at room temperature | [301] | |
Green chili | CS + pullulan | 5, 10, and 15 wt% | - | 18 days, 25 °C | □ Improved tensile strength, WVP, and oxygen and UV barrier properties, especially for those containing 15 wt% GA □ Lower overall migration than the acceptable limit of 10 mg dm−2 □ Higher antioxidant and antimicrobial activities | [302] |
5.1.2. Meat Products
5.1.3. Fruits and Vegetables
5.2. Functional Foods
6. Disadvantages of GA in Human Health and Food Products
6.1. Toxicity
6.2. Interaction with Drugs and Nutrients
6.3. Sensory Impact in Food Products
7. Conclusions and Future Perspectives
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Sample/Matrix Type | Sample Pretreatment | Sample Preparation | Analytical Method | Analytical Conditions | GA Concentration | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Longan seed (Dimocarpus longan Lour.) and mango kernel (Mangifera indica L.) (Singapore) | Longan seed and mango kernel: freeze-dried (FD) (−50 °C, 24 h) Mango kernel: dried at 160 °C, then ground and stored at −20 °C | Longan seed: (1) FD/EtOH extraction al 70 °C, 1 h Mango kernel (2) FD/EtOH extraction at 70 °C, 1 h (3) FD/MeOH extraction at 70 °C, 1 h (4) FD/MeOH and hydrolysis at 35 °C, 16 h (5) FD/MeOH and hydrolysis at 85 °C, 2 h (6) 160 °C-dried/MeOH extraction at 70 °C, 1 h (7) 160 °C-heated/MeOH extraction and hydrolysis at 35 °C, 16 h (8) 160 °C-heated/MeOH extraction and hydrolysis at 85 °C, 2 h | RP-HPLC/DAD | Column: Shim-Pack VP-ODS column (250 × 4.6 mm) with a guard column GCP-ODS (10 × 4.6 mm); MP: H2O–AA (97:3, v/v) (A) and MeOH (B) in gradient mode: 10% B for 10 min to 70% B in 40 min; Tª: 40 °C; FR: 0.9 mL/min; λ = 280 and 360 nm | [GA] (mg/100 g seeds) (1) 23.3 (2) 185 (3) 20.0 (4) 84.1 (5) 163 (6) 414 (7) 535 (8) 838 | [67] |
Nigella sativa seeds (Nagpur, India) | Seeds were dried in air, ground, sieved, weighed and stored in an airtight container at room temperature | N. sativa powder was dissolved in 10 mL of MeOH, filtered, and distilled under reduced pressure. | RP-HPLC/DAD | Column: C18 (MakeGrace) (250 × 4.6 mm, 5 µm); MP: ACN:H2O (60:40, v/v) adjusted to pH 3.00 with 0.05% PA was used in isocratic mode; Tª: RT; FR: 0.5 mL/min; λ = 210 nm | [GA]: 0.4736 µg/mL | [68] |
Five commercial pomegranate juices (PJ) with different brands (Mahshahr, Iran) | Samples were stored at 4 °C | 5 mL of each sample was centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 20 min. The supernatant was filtered and diluted to 50 mL with distilled water; 10 mL of the above solution was transferred into a volumetric flask, and after the addition of α–cyclodextrin, adjusting the pH to 3.0 and filling it to the mark with 10% EtOH:H2O, it was sonicated for 20 min. | RP-HPLC/DAD | Column: C18 (250 mm × 4.6 mm, 5 µm); MP: ACN/diluted with PA 25.0 × 10−3 mol/L (15:85, v/v) in isocratic mode; FR: 1.0 mL/min; λ = 240 nm | [GA] (mg/L) PJ1: 3.98 PJ2: 2.41 PJ3: 1.30 PJ4: 3.00 PJ5: 4.98 | [69] |
Grape juice (GJ) and wine (W) (Sub-Middle São Francisco Valley, Brazil) | Sorting and separation of GJ varieties (GJA, GJB, GJC, GJD, GJE) and W varieties: WF, WG, WH | GJ/W previously diluted 500 μL + 1000 μL in phase A. | RP-HPLC/DAD | Column: Zorbax Eclipse Plus RP-C18 (100 × 4.6 mm, 3.5 µm) with a guard column C18 (12.6 × 4.6 mm, 5 µm); MP: 0.1 M PA in H2O (pH 2.0) (A) and 0.5% PA in MeOH (B) in a gradient mode: 0–5 min: 5% B; 5–14 min: 23% B; 14–22 min: 26% B; 22–25 min: 80% B; Tª: 35 °C; FR: 0.8 mL/min; λ = 280 nm | [GA] (mg/mL) GJA: 4.5 ± 0.4 GJB: 3.6 ± 2.9 GJC: 16.7 ± 3.5 GJD: 7.6 ± 1.2 GJE: 6.5 ± 1.0 WF: 26.4 ± 1.1 WG: 24.7 ± 1.0 WH: 16.9 ± 2.6 | [70] |
Skins, pulps, seeds, canes, and leaves from grapes (V. vinifera L) (Urmia, Iran) | Sorting, separation, and crushing of different parts of grape varieties: Muscat Alexanderia (MA), Hosseini (Hos), Ghara Shira (GShi), Agh Shani (AG), Ghara Shani (GSha), and Ghara Ghandome (GG) | UAE: Powdered grape parts were weighed and mixed with 5 mL. MeOH:HCl (99:1, v/v) for ultrasonic extraction at 25 °C and a frequency of 35 kHz for 20 min. Then, samples were taken out and left at RT for 30 min. The extract was filtered and the remaining solids were extracted again under the same conditions. | RP-HPLC/DAD | Column: C18, (250 × 4.6 mm, 5 µm) and pre-column; MP: H2O:THF:TFA (98:2:0.1, v/v/v) (A) and MeOH:THF:TFA (98:2:0.1, v/v/v) (B) in a gradient mode: 17% B for 2 min: 17% B for 2 min increasing to 25% B after 5 min to 35% B after a further 8 min and to 50% B after a further 5 min; Tª: 25 °C; FR: 1 mL/min; λ = 278 nm | [GA] (μg/g) MA: skin: 122 ± 7, pulp: 109 ± 5; seed: 87 ± 3; cane: 118 ± 4; leaf: 1.4 ± 0.1; Hos: skin: 143 ± 6, pulp: 128 ± 7, seed: 87 ± 5, cane: 102 ± 4, leaf: 0.9 ± 0.1; GShi: skin: 238 ± 13, Pulp:153 ± 8, seed: 77 ± 4, cane: 132 ± 8, leaf: 1.3 ± 0.2; AG: skin: 220 ± 13, pulp: 178 ± 8, seed: 77 ± 4, cane: 141 ± 7, leaf: 1.9 ± 0.2; GSha: skin: 319 ± 17, pulp: 192 ± 10, seed: 91 ± 5, cane: 153 ± 8, leaf: 2.6 ± 0.2; GG: skin: 127 ± 7, pulp: 87 ± 4, seed: 67 ± 4, cane: 101 ± 6, leaf: 1.1 ± 0.1 | [71] |
Three different varieties of Camellia seed oils (China) | C. sinensis (CS): (1) H. Xinyang; (2) J. Lushan; (3) S. Rizhao; (4) H. Enshi; (5) Z. Hangzhou; (6) F. Quanzhou C. oleifera (CO): (7) A. Huangshan; (8) J. Ganzhou; (9) G. Liuzhou; (10) H. Chenzhou; (11) H. Huaihua; (12) F. Shanming C. chekiangoleosa (CC): (13) J. Dexing; (14) Z. Kaihua; (15) H. Loudi All kinds of Camellia seeds were dried, unshelled, and crushed to obtain oil. The oil samples were placed in glass bottles, and stored in the dark at RT until further extraction | Liquid–liquid extraction assisted by centrifugation. | HPLC-ESI-Q-TOF-MS | HPLC conditions: Column: SPURSIL-C18 (150 × 2.1 mm, 2.1 µm); MP: 0.1% AA in H2O (A) and 0.1% AA in ACN (B) in a gradient mode: 0–20 min, 0–50% B; 20–25 min, 50–100% B; Tª: 30 °C; FR: 0.4 mL/min. ESI conditions: negative ionization mode; capillary: 4000 V; nebulizer pressure: 30 psi; fragment voltage: 140 V; drying gas FR: 9 L/min; gas Tª: 190 °C; N2 sheath gas Tª: 350 °C; N2 sheath gas FR: 10 L/min; Scan range, m/z: 100–1000 in full scan mode; collision energy: 10–40 eV. Quantitative analysis was performed by HPLC-QqQ-MS with the following gradient elution: 0–30 min, 0–10% B; 30–50 min, 10–40% B; 50–55 min, 40–0% B. | [GA] (μg/g) CS1: 2.2114 ± 0.0069 CS2: 2.3097 ± 0.0239 CS3: 1.9689 ± 0.0113 CS4: 2.5764 ± 0.0099 CS5: 1.8805 ± 0.0019 CS6: 2.3964 ± 0.0201 CO7: 0.5150 ± 0.0011 CO8: 0.4640 ± 0.0051 CO9: 0.9720 ± 0.0102 CO10: 1.5580 ± 0.0014 CO11: 0.5169 ± 0.0051 CO12: 0.7012 ± 0.0009 CC13: 1.7910 ± 0.0062 CC14: 1.4881 ± 0.0098 CC15: 1.1243 ± 0.024 | [72] |
Two varieties of Psidium guajava L. (Motril, España) | Pyrifera (Pyr) and pomifera (Pom) varieties of P. guajava L. were air-dried and crushed | UAE: samples were extracted (×3 times) with 15 mL of EtOH: H2O mixture (80:20, v/v) for 10 min at RT, centrifuged for 15 min at 6000 rpm. The pooled supernatants were evaporated, dissolved in 2 mL of MeOH/H2O (50:50, v/v), and stored at −20 °C in the dark until analysis. | HPLC-ESI-Q-TOF-MS | HPLC conditions: Column: Poroshell 120 EC-C18 (100 × 4.6 mm, 2.7 µm); MP: 1% AA in H2O (A) and ACN (B) in a gradient mode: 0 min, 0.8% B; 2.5 min, 0.8% B; 5.5 min, 6.8% B; 11 min, 14.4% B; 17 min, 24% B; 22 min, 40% B; 26 min, 100% B; Tª: 25 °C; FR: 0.8 mL/min. ESI conditions: negative ionization mode; capillary: 3500 V; nebulizer pressure: 50 psi; fragment voltage: 3500 V; drying gas FR: 12.0 L/min; gas Tª: 370 °C; N2 sheath gas Tª: 350 °C; N2 sheath gas FR: 10 L/min; Scan range, m/z: 50–1500 in full scan mode; collision energy: 30–45 eV. | [GA] (mg/g leaf d.w) (Pyr): 0.060 ± 0.008 (Pom): 0.223 ± 0.003 | [73] |
Pulp, peel, seed, and husk of Keitt mango | Samples were separated, FD, milled, and kept at −18 °C until use | Solid–liquid extraction: Free polar fraction of mango (FPF): FD powder samples were dissolved in 10 mL of solution of MeOH/H2O (80:20, v/v) and placed for 15 min at RT in an ultrasonic bath. The mixture was centrifuged for 15 min at 1000× g, and the supernatant was stored. This process was repeated twice. | HPLC-DAD-ESI-Q-TOF-MS | HPLC conditions: Column: Poroshell 120 EC-C18 (100 × 4.6 mm, 2.7 µm); MP: 1% AA in H2O (A) and ACN (B) in a gradient mode: 0 min, 0.8% B; 5.5 min, 6.8% B; 16 min, 20% B; 20 min, 25% B; 25 min, 35% B; 29 min, 100%; Tª: 25 °C; FR: 0.8 mL/min. λ: 240, 280, and 330 nm. ESI conditions: negative ionization mode; capillary: 3500 V; nebulizer pressure: 50 psi; fragment voltage: 3500 V; drying gas FR: 12.0 L/min; gas Tª: 370 °C; N2 sheath gas Tª: 370 °C; N2 sheath gas FR: 10 L/min; Scan range, m/z: 50–1500 in full scan mode; collision energy: 30–45 eV. | [GA] (mg/100 g leaf d.w) FPF Pulp: 2.08 ± 0.02 Peel: 12.18 ± 0.39 Seed: 17.55 ± 0.74 Husk: 2.48 ± 0.05 BPF Pulp: 0.019 ± 0.001 Peel: 0.718 ± 0.062 Seed: 0.310 ± 0.015 Husk: 0.487 ± 0.017 | [74] |
Red and yellow araçá (Psidium cattleianum Sabine) (Pelotas, Brazil) | Red araçá (RA) and yellow araçá (YA) were separated and lyophilized for 72 h. FD samples were milled and stored at −18 °C until analysis | Extraction of extractable phenolic compounds (EPC): 5 mL of MeOH: H2O (8:2, v/v) acidified with 0.35% FA was added to FD samples and vortexed for 3 min. The extract was centrifuged at 3000× g for 5 min (4 °C), and the supernatant was placed in a rotary evaporator to remove the MeOH. Extraction of non-extractable phenolic compounds (NEPC): The NEPC fraction was obtained from acid hydrolysis of the solid product generated in the EPC extraction. The pellet was added to 20 mL of MeOH acidified with HCl (15%, v/v) for 15 min at 90 °C. The extract was centrifuged and placed in a rotary evaporator as before. | LC-DAD-ESI-Q-TOF-MS/MS | HPLC conditions: Column: C18 Synergy Hydro-RP column (250 × 4.6 mm, 4 µm); MP: 0.5% FA in H2O (A) and 0.5% FA in ACN (B) in a gradient mode: 99:1 (v/v) A/B to 50:50 (v/v) A/B over 50 min and then from 50:50 (v/v) A/B to 1:99 (v/v) A/B over 5 min. λ: 280 and 320 nm. ESI conditions: negative ionization mode; capillary: 3000 V; nebulizer pressure: 50 psi; fragment voltage: 3500 V; drying gas FR: 8.0 L/min; gas Tª: 370 °C; N2 sheath gas Tª: 310 °C; N2 sheath gas FR: 10 L/min; Scan range, m/z: 50–1500 in full scan mode; collision energy: 30–45 eV. | [GA] (μg/g) RA-EPC: 9.9 ± 0.5 RA-NEPC: 34.1 ± 2.1 YA-EPC: 7.4 ± 0.3 YA-NEPC: 11.1 ± 0.9 | [75] |
Seven samples of different types of red wine (Bahia, Brazil) | Samples were stored at 4 °C in the dark: Shiraz (1), Cabernet Sauvignon (2), Cabernet Sauvignon/Shiraz (3), Cabernet Sauvignon/Shiraz (4), Shiraz (5), Shiraz (6), Cabernet Sauvignon/Shiraz (7) | Liquid extraction: NaCl, Na2S2O5, and acidified ethyl acetate were added to each wine, and samples were subjected to ultrasonication for 7 min. After that, the samples were dried and the solid residue was spiked with pyridine, BSTFA, and 1% TMS. | GS-MS | The Tª program was the following: initial temperature of 80 °C, for 1 min, from 80 to 250 °C with a rate of 20 °C/min, 6 °C/min to 300 °C, and finally increased at 20 °C/min to 320 °C, and held for 24 min. ND about GS-MS procedure | [GA] (mg/L) (1): 21.4 ± 1.7 (2): 27.1 ± 4.0 (3): 47.2 ± 5.7 (4): 49.4 ± 6.0 (5): 46.4 ± 6.3 (6): 56.3 ± 5.6 (7): 54.1 ± 3.7 | [76] |
Divya-Swasari-Vati (DSV) (Haridwar, India) | ND | Powdered DSV were dissolved in 10 mL H2O:MeOH (20:80, v/v) while sonicated for 20 min. | HPTLC | HPTLC plates: 10 × 10 cm plates for fingerprinting, and 20 × 10 cm plates, for quantification on aluminum-backed plates coated with a 0.20 mm layer of silica gel 60 F254; solvent system: two solvent systems, ethyl acetate/toluene/formic acid (10:9:1, v/v/v), and ethyl acetate/formic acid/acetic acid/water (10:1:1:2.3, v/v/v/v). | [GA]: 3226.0 ± 610.4 µg/g | [77] |
Honey (Western Australia) | Four different varieties of honey were collected: (A) Calothamnus spp. honey (B) Agonis flexuosa honey (C) Corymbia calophylla honey (D) Eucalyptus marginata honey | Liquid–liquid extraction: 2 mL of deionized water was added to the honey sample and vortexed. The resulting solution was then extracted three times with 5 mL DCM and ACN (1:1, v/v). The combined extracts were dried and stored at 4 °C. | HPTLC | HPTLC plates: silica gel 60 F254 plates 10 × 20 cm; solvent system: toluene/ethyl acetate/formic acid (2:8:1, v/v/v) and toluene/ethyl acetate/formic acid (6:5:1, v/v/v); λ: 254 nm. | [GA] (µg/g) (A): 1.64 ± 0.00 (B): n.d. (C): 5.84 ± 0.00 (D): n.d. | [78] |
Dodonaea angustifolia leaves (DALs) and flower (DAF) (Ethiopia) | Samples were washed, cut into smaller pieces (<45 µm), dried at RT, and ground | UAE: samples were extracted (twice) in 25 mL of MeOH at 35 °C for 15 min. The extracts were centrifuged at 10× g for 20 min and the supernatant was filtered and stored. | HPTLC | HPTLC plates: precoated silica gel 60 F254 aluminum plates (20 × 10 cm, 100 µm); solvent system: toluene/ethyl acetate/FA/MeOH (20:12:4:8, volume ratio); λ: 254 to 450 nm; humidity: 44–46% | [GA] (mg/100 g) DAL: 32.26 ± 1.55 DAF: 53.64 ± 1.21 | [79] |
Leaves of Ricinus communis Linn (Shanghai, China) | Three samples of the leaves of R. communis L (1, 2, 3) were all dried at 60 °C for 2 h and then pulverized. | Powdered samples were dispersed in MeOH in a water bath at 60 °C for 3 h. After cooling, it was sonicated for 30 min and filtered. The extract was diluted using 50 mM borate buffer (pH 9.0) before CE analysis. | CE-AD | A ±30 kV high-voltage dc power supply provided a separation voltage between the ends of the capillary. The inlet of the capillary was held at a positive potential and the outlet of the capillary was maintained at ground. The separations were carried out in a 40 cm length of 25 µm i.d. and 360 µm o.d. fused silica capillary. The CE system was assembled at Tª 25 °C. The detection electrode was a 300 µm diameter carbon disc electrode at a detection potential of +0.90 V and a saturated calomel electrode (SCE), as the reference electrode was used in combination with a BAS LC-4C amperometric detector. | [GA] (mg/g) (1): 11.48 (2): 9.627 (3): 6.778 | [80] |
Alperujo samples from one olive oil (Córdoba, Spain) | Samples were taken directly from the production line and stored at −20 °C until analysis | Alperujo was placed in MeOH–H2O (1:3, v/v) for 13 min under ultrasonic irradiation (duty cycle 0.5 s, output amplitude 10%, applied power of 450 W, with the probe placed at 3 cm from the top surface of the extraction cell). During extraction, FR changed at 2 mL/min every 40 s, and after extraction was completed, DMF was added to the extract. Then, the sample was diluted using MeOH, and before introduction into the CE system, the extract was centrifuged for 3 min at 3000 rpm. | CE-DAD | The running buffer used was a solution of 45 mM H3BO3 (pH 9.6), adjusted with NaOH to pH 10 and with 5% MeOH. Extracts were electrokinetically injected by application of 25 kV for 4 s. The analysis voltage was 27 kV, being the average current ∼110 A, Tª 30 °C, and λ: 210 nm. To maintain the capillary under optimal working conditions, its surface was regenerated after each run by sequential washing with water (2 min), 0.1 M sodium hydroxide (2 min), 1 min waiting, followed by the running buffer (10 min). | [GA]: 12.48 ± 0.4 µg/g | [81] |
Leaves from rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis), sage (Salvia officinalis), oregano (Origanum vulgare), and Ligustrum lucidum (Ioannina, Greece) | The samples were washed and pulverized into a fine powder | Oregano leaves were extracted with acetone in a Soxhlet apparatus for 6 h, while sage, rosemary, and L. lucidum leaves were subsequently extracted with hexane and ethyl acetate in a Soxhlet apparatus for 6 h. Furthermore, L. lucidum leaves were subjected to two more treatments: macerated in MeOH for 7 days in the dark at RT and boiled with distilled water for 1 h. All the extracts were filtered, freeze-dried, and stored at −20 °C. | 1H-NMR | NMR experiments were performed at 295 K on a Bruker 500 spectrometer equipped with a TXI cryoprobe. Samples were dissolved in DMSO-d6. All chemical shifts were measured with reference to the internal standard TSP-d4 (δ = 0.000 ppm) of a given concentration (0.03 mM). All spectra were acquired with an acquisition time of 1.818 s, relaxation delay 5 s, 64 K data points, 90° pulse length, and optimum low-power radiofrequency irradiation for the water signal pre-saturation. | 1H NMR spectrum of the artificial mixture of phenolic acids found 2.94 mM GA | [82] |
Green tea samples (C. sinensis) (Guangzhou, China) | Different varieties of green tea were pulverized and stored until use. | 1.5 mL Milli-Q water was added to 50 mg pulverized green tea and kept at 70 °C with continuous shaking for 25 min. The extract was centrifuged at 13,000 rpm for 20 min, and the supernatant was stored until analysis. | 1H-NMR | 600 µL of the sample was mixed with 100 µL of TSP-d4–D2O solution and analyzed in a Bruker 600 spectrometer at 600.13 MHz proton frequency; 128 scans of 38.460 data points were acquired, with a spectral width of 9600 Hz (16 ppm), pulse width of 12.34 ms, acquisition time of 4.0 s, relaxation D1 of 10 s, flip angle of 90°, and constant gain of 181. | [GA] (mg/g) (1) 0.34 (2) 1.58 (3) 1.88 (4) 1.31 (5) 1.73 (6) 1.63 | [83] |
Leaves from green tea of the cultivars C. sinensis Yabukita and Yutakamidori | ND | 100 mg of green tea from each cultivar was sprayed with liquid N2 and subjected to microextraction in 1 mL of CD3OD (0.05% TMS). Then, sonication and centrifugation were performed at 12,000 rpm for 10 min Each, and the supernatant was stored until analysis. | 1H HR-MAS NMR | 1H HR-MAS qNMR spectra were acquired on a Bruker 400 (9.4 T) spectrometer at 400.13 MHz, equipped with 4 mm four channel (1H; 13C; 15N; 2H) HR-MAS probe and gradient field in the direction of the magic angle (θ = 54.74°). All acquisitions were performed with an interpulse delay time of 5 × T1, a recycle delay of 20 s (D1), 256 transients, AQ of 4.89 s, and 64 K points during the acquisition, using a spectral window of 8012.820 Hz. | GA was identified via a singlet at δH 7.10 | [84] |
Different water samples matrices, including tap (1), mineral (2), and river (3) (Iran) | Before the determination of GA in samples, 500 mL of each sample were filtered through Whatman filter paper, and the samples were stored at 4 °C until analysis and processed within 1 week of collection | An ultrasonic processor operated at 40 kHz with a power of 130 W was used as the source of ultrasound for the enhanced recovery of GA. | UV–Vis | The volume of eluent (EtOH), sonication time, amount of sorbent, and pH were the parameters to optimize. | [GA] (ng/mL) (1): 995.43 (2): 984.35 (3): 990.71 | [85] |
Green lentils (Saskatoon, SK, Canada) | Initial preparation of the samples involved the removal of lipids: samples were dried, dehulled. and defatted with hexane (1:5, w/v) for 5 min at RT. This procedure was repeated twice more, and samples were stored at −20 °C. Black hull soluble (BHS); black whole soluble (BWS); black dehull soluble (BDS); green hull soluble (GHS); green whole soluble (GWS); green dehull soluble (GDS); black hull insoluble-bound (BHI); black whole insoluble-bound (BWI); black dehull insoluble-bound (BDI); green hull insoluble-bound (GHI); green whole insoluble-bound (GWI); green dehull insoluble-bound (GDI) | Soluble phenolic compounds (SPCs): 10 mL of MeOH/acetone/H2O (1:1:1, v/v/v) was added to defatted samples and then sonicated for 20 min at 40 °C. The supernatant was then filtered and stored. Non-soluble phenolic compounds (NSPCs): Residues after the extraction of soluble phenolics were hydrolyzed using 2 M NaOH while stirring for 4 h at RT, then using 6 M HCl, and then centrifuged at 2000× g for 5 min. The supernatant was then extracted with hexane and then with diethyl ether/ethyl acetate 1:1 (v/v), four times. The solvent was then removed using a rotary evaporator, and then reconstituted in MeOH and stored at −20 °C until use. | (ESI)-MS-MS | 500 µL of both SPC and NSPC were injected into a mass spectrometer through direct diffusion at a rate of 10 µL/min. The individual phenolic compounds were identified and quantified in the negative mode along with 4045 (v) ion spray voltage, 16.1 (arb) sheath gas, 2.4 aux gas, 325 °F ion transfer tube Tª, and 30 °C vaporizer Tª. | [GA] (μg/g) SPC: (BHS): 96.0 ± 2.0 (BWS): 2.8 ± 0.5 (BDS): 0.9 ± 0.2 (GHS): 4.0 ± 0.2 (GHS): 1.4 ± 0.1 (GDS): 1.1 ± 0.0 NSPC: (BHI): 489.9 ± 38.9 (BWI): 1.6 ± 0.5 (BDI): 1.5 ± 0.2 (GHI): 104.1 ± 2.4 (GHI): 0.9 ± 0.0 (GDI): 2.6 ± 0.2 | [86] |
Alcohol beverages (sherry and fruit wines and cognac 1 and 2) | No sample pretreatment is necessary and the procedure is rapid | A test solution containing 5–150 µg of GA, 1.5 mL of fresh 8 × 10−3 M 4-nitrobenzenediazonium tetrafluoroborate, 2.5 mL of 1 M HCl, and water up to a volume of 25 mL was sequentially added to vessels with ground stoppers. A single (polyurethane foam) PUF tablet was placed in each vessel, and after an unspecified period, tablets were removed and dried, and their diffuse reflectance was measured. | DRS | Diffuse reflectance values were measured on “Uniphot” portable reflectometer–colorimeter. The GA concentration was obtained using a Kubelka–Munk calibration curve, F (R) = f (C), where F (R) is the Kubelka–Munk function at 410 nm and C is the concentration of GA in µg/mL | [GA] (µg/mL) Sherry wine: 43 ± 3 Fruit wine: 77 ± 5 Cognac 1: 18 ± 2 Cognac 2: 38 ± 2 | [87] |
Study Model and Administration Way | Dose mg/kg | GA Antioxidant Activity | Therapeutic Outcome | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Mice with diabetic nephropathy induced with methylglyoxal, oral administration | 30 | Decreases MDA, miR-192, miR-204, albuminuria, and Nrf2; increases antioxidant enzymes such as SOD, CAT, glyoxalase1, and miR-29a | Mitigates kidney damage by reducing oxidative stress markers | [144] |
Elastase emphysema in rats, oral administration | 30 | Lowers MDA and NF-κB levels; increases GS, SOD, CAT, Nrf2, and HO-1 levels | Reduces ischemia/reperfusion injury and histological damage | [145] |
Paraquat liver injury in rats, oral administration | 50 or 100 | Lowers TG, AST, ALT, ALP, MDA, PC, IL-1β, LDL-C, and VLDL-C levels; increases HDL-C, FRAP, SOD, and CAT levels | Improves histological damage | [150] |
Metabolic syndrome in rats, oral administration | 20 | Increases SOD, CAT, GPx, and GSH; decreases ROS, LPO, TNF-α, and IL-1β | Reduces oxidative stress and enhances recognition memory, hippocampal dendritic spines, and antioxidant enzymes | [161] |
Paclitaxel neuropathy in mice, intravenous injection | 20 or 40 | Lowers LPO, TNF-α, and MPO levels; increases GSH level | Reduces thermal and mechanical hyperalgesia and allodynia symptoms | [152] |
Quinolinic acid-induced neurotoxicity in rats, oral administration | 200 | Increases GPx and CAT levels; decreases caspase-3, IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α levels | Protects against oxidative damage | [153] |
Carbon tetrachloride liver fibrosis in rats, oral administration | 100 | Lowers AST, ALT, ALP, bilirubin, albumin, and MDA; increases SOD, CAT, and GSH levels | Prevents oxidative damage in emphysema | [154] |
Streptozotocin diabetes in rats, oral administration | 10, 50, 100 | Decreases LPO and increases GSH levels | Lowers oxidative stress and improves depressive-like behavior | [156] |
COPD-linked lung inflammation/emphysema in mice, intraperitoneal injection | 100 | Lowers IL-6, TNF-α, IL-1β, ROS, LPO, PC, MMP-9, MMP-2; increases GSH and TIMP-1 levels | Decreases oxidative stress and histological damage | [162] |
Nicotine-induced testicular injury in mice, intraperitoneal injection | 20 | Lowers NO and MDA levels; increases FRAP and SOD levels | Reduces histological damage and increases sperm quality and testosterone | [163] |
Sodium arsenite-induced toxicity in rats, oral administration | 30 | Lowers creatine kinase-MB, MDA, and NO levels; increases white blood cells, platelets, MCV, hemoglobin, MCH, GPx, GSH and SOD levels | Reduces histological damage of the heart | [159] |
Isoproterenol-induced ischemia/reperfusion in rats, oral administration | 50 | Increases SERCA2a and SOD levels; lowers LDH and creatine kinase-MB levels | Improves cardiac function and reduces cardiac hypertrophy | [160] |
STZ diabetes in rats, oral administration | 20 or 40 | Reduces MDA markers; enhances antioxidant enzymes like GSH, SOD, and CAT | Reduces oxidative stress and prevents glomerular damage and tubulo-interstitial fibrosis | [164] |
Bisphenol A toxicity in rats, oral administration | 50 or 200 | Scavenges ROS; boosts SOD, CAT, and GSH antioxidants; decreases levels of urea, LPO, creatinine, uric acid, IL-6, and IL-1β | Mitigates oxidative damage and reduces kidney morphological damage | [165] |
Paraquat toxicity in rats, oral administration | 50 or 100 | Lowers uric acid, creatinine, PCI, IL-1β, and MDA levels; enhances SOD and CAT activity | Reduces oxidative stress and kidney morphological damage | [166] |
Diclofenac toxicity in rats, oral administration | 50 or 100 | Reduces serum urea, uric acid, creatinine, MDA, IL-1β, and NO levels; enhances SOD, CAT, GPx, and GSH levels | Prevents oxidative damage and kidney morphological damage | [167] |
Cyclophosphamide toxicity in mice, oral administration | 30 | Reduces BUN, KIM-1, NGAL, IL-1β, TNF-α, and creatinine levels; enhances antioxidants like SOD, CAT, GPx, and GSH | Mitigates kidney damage by reducing oxidative stress markers | [168] |
Cisplatin toxicity in rats, oral administration | 40 | Lowers creatinine, LncRNA TUG1, Bax, caspase-3, Bcl-2, BUN, MDA, IL-1β, and TNF-α levels | Prevents oxidative damage and kidney morphological damage | [169] |
Glyoxylic acid kidney stone formation in mice, intraperitoneal injection | 50 | Decreases MDA, Lcn2 mRNA, KIM1 mRNA, creatinine, BUN, OPN, TNF-α, IL-1β, renal tubular injury, and CaOx crystal deposition; increases 4-HNE, Nrf2, HO-1 levels | Reduces deposition of kidney stones and oxidative stress | [170] |
Hyperuricemia in mice, oral administration | 100 | Decreases BUN, uric acid, Cys-C, MDA, IL-1β, COX-2, TGF-β1, and GLUT9 levels; increases CAT, OAT1, OAT3, and GPx levels | Reduces kidney morphological damage | [171] |
Hypoxic-ischemic brain damage in rats, intraperitoneal injection | 50 | Decreases IL-1β, ROS, and LPO levels; increases SOD and CAT levels | Reduces neuronal loss, motor ability issues, and oxidative stress markers, and learning and memory improved | [40] |
Hypothyroidism in rats, oral administration | 50 | Lowers ATF4, PERK1, p-eIF2α, GADD153, GADD34, caspase-12, Bax, ATF6α, IRE1a, and p53; increases eIF2α and Bcl-2 levels | Prevents oxidative damage and reduces morphological damage in CA3 hippocampal region | [172] |
Ketamine toxicity in rats, oral administration | 10, 25, 50 | Lowers ROS, PC, and LPO levels; increases NPSH levels | Reduces oxidative stress | [173] |
HFD obesity in db/db mice, oral administration | 100 | Lowers AST, ALT, cholesterol, TG, LPO, SREBP1, and SREBP2 levels; increases GST, GPx, SOD, and CAT levels | Reduces oxidative stress in pulmonary fibrosis and histological damage | [174] |
Cyclophosphamide toxicity in mice, oral administration | 100, 200, or 400 | Increases SOD and GSH levels | Improves histological damage, reduces micronucleus and DNA strand breaks, and decreases oxidative stress markers by increasing antioxidant enzymes | [175] |
Thioacetamide liver fibrosis in rats, oral administration | 20 | Lowers AST, total bilirubin, ALT, ALP, MDA, TGF-β1, p-Smad3, and miR-21 levels; increases miR-30, SOD, CAT, and miR-200 levels | Improves histological damage | [176] |
Zearalenone reproductive dysfunction in rats, oral administration | 40 | Increases CAT, GPx, GST, GSH, SOD and TSH levels; decreases RONS, LPO, MPO, NO, and TNF-α levels | Increases testicular function enzymes, reproductive hormones, and sperm quality; reduces histological damage | [177] |
Cisplatin ovarian damage in rats, oral administration | 2.5 or 5 | Lowers MDA, TNF-α, and caspase-3 levels; increases CAT level | Reduces histological damage | [178] |
TAC cardiac hypertrophic remodeling in mice, oral administration | 20 | Lowers IL-1β, IL-6, gp130, CaNA, p-ERK1/2, MCP-1, EGFR, p-STAT3, and p-AKT levels | Reduces myocardial dysfunction, cardiac hypertrophy, and histological damage | [179] |
Study Model | Dose | Anticancer Activity | Therapeutic Outcome | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Glioblastoma cell in rats | 50 and 100 mg/kg | Activates mitochondrial apoptotic pathway | 90% reduction in tumor size and lower brain oxidative damage | [187] |
DU145 prostate cancer cells in mice | 25, 50, and 100 µg/mL | Initiates mitochondria-mediated apoptosis, inhibits cell growth at G2/M phases by activating Chk1 and Chk2 and inhibiting Cdc25C and Cdc2 activities | Reduced cancer cell survival and induced cell cycle arrest | [188] |
A375S2 human melanoma cells in mice | 100 µmol/L | Promotes apoptosis, downregulates Bcl-2, upregulates Bax | Marked inhibition of cell proliferation and induction of apoptosis | [190] |
Breast cancer MCF-7 human cell line | GA, paclitaxel, and carboplatin in various concentrations | Cell cycle arrest at the G2/M phase | GA boosted the efficacy of paclitaxel and carboplatin, induced apoptotic cell death in MCF-7 cells, and increased the expression of P53, Bax, and CASP-3 | [198] |
Non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) in human cells and rats | 10, 20, and 40 µg/kg | Inhibits EGFR activation and reduces the CARM1-PELP1 complex | Inhibits proliferation and promotes apoptosis in NSCLC human cells, contributing to reduced tumor growth in vivo in rats | [209] |
Colon cancer in rats | 20 and 50 mg/kg body weight | Reduces lipid peroxidation products like TBARS, LOOH, and CD, increases antioxidant levels like SOD, CAT, GSH, GR, and GPx, and lowers ascorbic acid and α-tocopherol levels in DMH-treated rats | Strong chemopreventive effect on DMH-induced colon carcinogenesis | [210] |
Human bladder cancer T24 cell line | 6.25, 12.5, 25 µg/mL | Inhibits cell proliferation by disrupting PI3K/Akt/NF-κB signaling pathways | Inhibits T24 cell proliferation and metastasis, and leads to apoptosis; pro-apoptotic activity linked with mitochondrial dysfunction and PI3K/Akt/NF-κB signaling inhibition | [211] |
Leukemia and its resistant sublines (HL60 cell HL60/VINC HL60/M2) in human cells | Eleven concentrations ranging from 10–500 µM | Alters cell cycle distribution and increases cell population in sub-G1 phase, modulates ROS production in a time- and dose-dependent manner | Cytotoxic activity against human promyelocytic leukemia-sensitive HL60 line and its resistant sublines, showing different MDR phenotypes: HL60/VINC (overexpressing P-gp) and HL60/M2 | [212] |
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Hadidi, M.; Liñán-Atero, R.; Tarahi, M.; Christodoulou, M.C.; Aghababaei, F. The Potential Health Benefits of Gallic Acid: Therapeutic and Food Applications. Antioxidants 2024, 13, 1001. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox13081001
Hadidi M, Liñán-Atero R, Tarahi M, Christodoulou MC, Aghababaei F. The Potential Health Benefits of Gallic Acid: Therapeutic and Food Applications. Antioxidants. 2024; 13(8):1001. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox13081001
Chicago/Turabian StyleHadidi, Milad, Rafael Liñán-Atero, Mohammad Tarahi, Marios C. Christodoulou, and Fatemeh Aghababaei. 2024. "The Potential Health Benefits of Gallic Acid: Therapeutic and Food Applications" Antioxidants 13, no. 8: 1001. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox13081001