The Antitumour Mechanisms of Carotenoids: A Comprehensive Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Biochemistry of the Carotenoids
2.1. Structure and Diversity
2.2. Antioxidant and Pro-Oxidant Function
- Electron transfer (oxidation/reduction): CAR + R· → CAR·+ + R-;
- Hydrogen abstraction: CAR + R· → CAR· + RH;
- Addition: CAR + R· → R-CAR·.
2.3. Bioavailability and Biotransformation
3. Oxidative Stress and Cancer
4. Direct Antitumoural Effects of Carotenoids on Cancer Cells
4.1. Cell Cycle Progression and Antiproliferation
4.1.1. Role of β-Carotene in Cell Cycle Regulation and Antiproliferative Effects on Cancer Cells
4.1.2. Role of Lycopene in Cell Cycle Regulation and Antiproliferative Effects on Cancer Cells
4.1.3. Role of Lutein in Cell Cycle Regulation and Antiproliferative Effects on Cancer Cells
4.1.4. Role of Astaxanthin in Cell Cycle Regulation and Antiproliferative Effects on Cancer Cells
4.1.5. Role of Fucoxanthin in Cell Cycle Regulation and Antiproliferative Effects on Cancer Cells
4.1.6. Role of Capsanthin in Cell Cycle Regulation and Antiproliferative Effects on Cancer Cells
4.1.7. Role of Crocetin and Crocin in Cell Cycle Regulation and Antiproliferative Effects on Cancer Cells
4.2. Apoptosis Induction
4.2.1. Role of β-Carotene in Inducing Apoptosis in Cancer Cells
4.2.2. Role of Lycopene in Inducing Apoptosis in Cancer Cells
4.2.3. Role of Lutein in Inducing Apoptosis in Cancer Cells
4.2.4. Role of Astaxanthin in Inducing Apoptosis in Cancer Cells
4.2.5. Role of Fucoxanthin in Inducing Apoptosis in Cancer Cells
4.2.6. Role of Capsanthin in Inducing Apoptosis in Cancer Cells
4.2.7. Role of Crocetin and Crocin in Inducing Apoptosis in Cancer Cells
4.3. Inhibition of Metastasis and Antiangiogenic Effect
4.3.1. Inhibition of Metastasis and Antiangiogenic Effects of β-Carotene in Cancer Cells
4.3.2. Inhibition of Metastasis and Antiangiogenic Effects of Lycopene in Cancer Cells
4.3.3. Inhibition of Metastasis and Antiangiogenic Effects of Lutein in Cancer Cells
4.3.4. Inhibition of Metastasis and Antiangiogenic Effects of Astaxanthin in Cancer Cells
4.3.5. Inhibition of Metastasis and Antiangiogenic Effects of Fucoxanthin in Cancer Cells
4.3.6. Inhibition of Metastasis and Antiangiogenic Effects of Capsanthin in Cancer Cells
4.3.7. Inhibition of Metastasis and Antiangiogenic Effects of Crocetin and Crocin in Cancer Cells
4.4. Other Effects
4.4.1. Autophagy and Necroptosis
4.4.2. Induction of Cell Differentiation
4.4.3. Enhancement of Gap Junctional Communication
4.4.4. Multidrug Resistance
5. Clinical Trials
6. Conclusions and Future Directions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Baeza-Morales, A.; Medina-García, M.; Martínez-Peinado, P.; Pascual-García, S.; Pujalte-Satorre, C.; López-Jaén, A.B.; Martínez-Espinosa, R.M.; Sempere-Ortells, J.M. The Antitumour Mechanisms of Carotenoids: A Comprehensive Review. Antioxidants 2024, 13, 1060. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox13091060
Baeza-Morales A, Medina-García M, Martínez-Peinado P, Pascual-García S, Pujalte-Satorre C, López-Jaén AB, Martínez-Espinosa RM, Sempere-Ortells JM. The Antitumour Mechanisms of Carotenoids: A Comprehensive Review. Antioxidants. 2024; 13(9):1060. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox13091060
Chicago/Turabian StyleBaeza-Morales, Andrés, Miguel Medina-García, Pascual Martínez-Peinado, Sandra Pascual-García, Carolina Pujalte-Satorre, Ana Belén López-Jaén, Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa, and José Miguel Sempere-Ortells. 2024. "The Antitumour Mechanisms of Carotenoids: A Comprehensive Review" Antioxidants 13, no. 9: 1060. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox13091060