Next Article in Journal
COVID-19, Anosmia, and Allergies: Is There a Relationship? A Pediatric Perspective
Next Article in Special Issue
Establishing the Optimal Time for Induction of Labor in Women with Diet-Controlled Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: A Single-Center Observational Study
Previous Article in Journal
The Efficacy of Exercise Training for Cutaneous Microvascular Reactivity in the Foot in People with Diabetes and Obesity: Secondary Analyses from a Randomized Controlled Trial
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
JCM
Volume 11
Issue 17
10.3390/jcm11175016
jcm-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Higher Thyroid fT3-to-fT4 Ratio Is Associated with Gestational Diabetes Mellitus and Adverse Pregnancy Outcomes

by
Lore Raets
1,*,
Caro Minschart
1,
Annick Van den Bruel
2,
Emmelien Van den Bogaert
3,
Paul Van Crombrugge
4,
Carolien Moyson
1,
Johan Verhaeghe
5,
Sofie Vandeginste
6,
Hilde Verlaenen
6,
Chris Vercammen
7,
Toon Maes
7,
Els Dufraimont
8,
Nele Roggen
8,
Christophe De Block
9,
Yves Jacquemyn
10,11,
Farah Mekahli
12,
Katrien De Clippel
13,
Anne Loccufier
13,
Annouschka Laenen
14,
Roland Devlieger
5,
Chantal Mathieu
1,
Brigitte Decallonne
1 and
Katrien Benhalima
1add Show full author list remove Hide full author list
1
Department of Endocrinology, University Hospital Gasthuisberg, KU Leuven, Herestraat 49, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
2
Department of Endocrinology, AZ St Jan Brugge, Ruddershove 10, 8000 Brugge, Belgium
3
Department of Medicine, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Herestraat 49, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
4
Department of Endocrinology, OLV-Ziekenhuis Aalst-Asse-Ninove, Moorselbaan 164, 9300 Aalst, Belgium
5
Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology, UZ Gasthuisberg, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Herestraat 49, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
6
Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology, OLV-Ziekenhuis Aalst-Asse-Ninove, Moorselbaan 164, 9300 Aalst, Belgium
7
Department of Endocrinology, Imelda Ziekenhuis, Imeldalaan 9, 2820 Bonheiden, Belgium
8
Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology, Imelda Ziekenhuis, Imeldalaan 9, 2820 Bonheiden, Belgium
9
Department of Endocrinology-Diabetology-Metabolism, Antwerp University Hospital, Drie Eikenstraat 655, 2650 Edegem, Belgium
10
Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology, Antwerp University Hospital (UZA), Drie Eikenstraat 655, 2650 Edegem, Belgium
11
Antwerp Surgical Training, Anatomy and Research Centre, Global Health Institute GHI, Antwerp University (UA), 2000 Antwerp, Belgium
12
Department of Endocrinology, Kliniek St-Jan Brussel, Kruidtuinlaan 32, 1000 Brussel, Belgium
13
Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology, Kliniek St-Jan Brussel, Kruidtuinlaan 32, 1000 Brussel, Belgium
14
Center of Biostatics and Statistical Bioinformatics, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Kapucijnenvoer 35 Bloc D, Box 7001, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
 
add Show full affiliation list
 
remove Hide full affiliation list
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
J. Clin. Med. 2022, 11(17), 5016; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm11175016
Submission received: 3 August 2022 / Revised: 22 August 2022 / Accepted: 22 August 2022 / Published: 26 August 2022
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: Current Challenges and New Insights)
Browse Figure
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Aim: To determine the association between thyroid function and the risk of developing gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) and adverse pregnancy outcomes. Methods: This case–control study was a sub-analysis of the BEDIP-N study, in which 199 GDM women were matched for age and body mass index with 398 controls. Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), free thyroxine (fT4), free triiodothyronine (fT3), and thyroid peroxidase (TPO) antibodies were measured at 6–14 weeks and 26–28 weeks during pregnancy. TSH and fT4 were also measured in early postpartum in GDM women. Results: The fT3-to-fT4 ratio at 26–28 weeks was positively associated with GDM risk with an adjusted odds ratio (aOR for smoking, education, parity, ethnicity, gestational weight gain, and (family) history of diabetes or GDM) of 2.12 (95% CI 1.07; 4.23), comparing the highest with the lowest tertile. Higher fT3 levels and a higher fT3-to-fT4 ratio were associated with a less favorable metabolic profile with higher BMI and more insulin resistance during pregnancy and postpartum. Women in the upper fT3 tertile and the upper fT3-to-fT4 ratio had a higher rate of preeclampsia [4.6% (10) vs. 1.0% (2), p = 0.040, and 4.4% (9) vs. 0.5% (1), p = 0.020], gestational hypertension [8.3% (18) vs. 3.1% (6), p = 0.034 and 8.9% (18) vs. 2.0% (4), p = 0.003], and caesarean sections [29.4% (63) vs. 16.1% (31), p = 0.002 and 32.2% (65) vs. 12.7% (25), p < 0.001]. Conclusion: A higher fT3-to-fT4 ratio late into pregnancy was associated with GDM, adverse pregnancy outcomes, and an adverse metabolic profile in early postpartum.

1. Introduction

Thyroid hormones (THs) are important for intrauterine fetal development, especially for the development of the fetal brain. During the early stages of pregnancy, the fetus largely depends on maternal THs [1]. Untreated overt maternal hypothyroidism during pregnancy leads to an increased risk of adverse pregnancy and child outcomes [2,3]. There has been a debate on the need for universal screening for thyroid dysfunction before or during pregnancy. The major negative impact of universal screening would be the identification of women with mild hypothyroidism, a population in whom the benefit of thyroid hormone supplementation is not well established [2].
THs play an important role in glucose metabolism. It has been suggested that thyroid dysfunction might be involved in the development of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) [4,5,6]. Sparse and conflicting data allude to the increased incidence of GDM in women with hypothyroidism [5,7,8,9]. Studies have shown that thyroid diseases in the first trimester are positively related to GDM [10,11]. Free T3 (fT3) levels may be an indicator of GDM risk starting early during pregnancy [5]. More data are needed to evaluate the association between thyroid function during pregnancy with GDM, adverse pregnancy outcomes, and risk of developing glucose intolerance in early postpartum. Moreover, there are currently only a few studies on the association between TH markers and GDM based on the 2013 WHO criteria [12,13]. We therefore aimed to determine the association between the fT3-to-fT4 ratio and related TH markers in early and late pregnancy and the risk of developing GDM, adverse pregnancy outcomes, and glucose intolerance in early postpartum.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Design and Setting

This case–control study was a sub-analysis of the Belgian Diabetes in Pregnancy study (BEDIP-N) (NCT02036619). We selected all women with GDM and matched them with women with normal glucose tolerance (two controls for every GDM case). Women with a history of thyroid disease were excluded. The controls were normal glucose tolerant (NGT) women matched for age and body mass index (BMI) in early pregnancy. Age matching was performed using a maximum range of 2 years and ages > 40 were rounded to 40 years. BMI matching was performed using a maximum range of 2 points and BMI > 35 was rounded to 35.
BEDIP-N was a multicentric prospective cohort study that has previously been described in detail [14,15,16,17,18]. The study was approved by the Institutional Review Boards of all participating centers, and all investigations were carried out in accordance with the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki. Informed consent was obtained before inclusion in the study. Participants were enrolled between 6 and 14 weeks of pregnancy, when fasting plasma glucose (FPG) was measured. Women with impaired fasting glycaemia (IFG) or diabetes in early pregnancy according to the American Diabetes Association (ADA)-criteria were excluded [19]. Women without (pre)diabetes received universal screening for GDM between 24 and 28 weeks of pregnancy with a non-fasting 50 g glucose challenge test (GCT) followed by a 75 g 2 h OGTT. The 2013 WHO criteria were used for the diagnosis of GDM [14,15,20]. The ADA-recommended glycemic targets were used for the treatment of GDM [20]. Women with GDM received an invitation for a postpartum 75 g OGTT 6 to 16 weeks after delivery. The ADA criteria were used to define diabetes and glucose intolerance postpartum [IFG and/or impaired glucose tolerance (IGT)] [14,20].

2.2. Study Visits and Measurements

Baseline characteristics and obstetrical history were collected at first visit [14]. At first visit and at the time of the OGTT, anthropometric measurements were obtained, and several self-administered questionnaires were completed [14].
A BMI ≥ 25 kg/m2 was defined as overweight, and a BMI ≥ 30 kg/m2 was defined as obese based on the BMI at first prenatal visit. A fasting blood test was taken to measure FPG, insulin, lipid profiles (total cholesterol, HDL and LDL cholesterol, triglycerides), and HbA1c. The homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) and beta-cell function (HOMA-B) was carried out [21]. The results of glucose and insulin levels during the OGTT were used to calculate the Matsuda index, which is a measure of whole body insulin sensitivity [14,21,22,23,24,25].

2.3. Pregnancy and Delivery Outcome Data

The following pregnancy outcomes were collected: gestational age at delivery, preeclampsia (de novo BP ≥ 140/90 mmHg > 20 weeks with proteinuria or signs of end-organ dysfunction), gestational hypertension (de novo BP ≥ 140/90 mmHg > 20 weeks), type of labor, type of delivery, macrosomia (>4 kg), large-for-gestational age (LGA) defined as birth weight > 90 percentile or small-for-gestational age (SGA) defined as birth weight < 10 percentile (according to standardized Flemish birth charts adjusted for sex of the baby and parity) [26], shoulder dystocia, preterm delivery (<37 completed weeks), and admission on the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) [14]. A glycemic value < 2.2 mmol/L was considered as a neonatal hypoglycemia across all centers. The difference in weight between the first prenatal visit and the time of the OGTT was calculated as an early weight gain. Total gestational weight gain (GWG) was calculated as the difference in weight between first prenatal visit and delivery. The excessive total GWG (EGWG) was defined according to the 2009 Institute of Medicine (IOM) guidelines [27].

2.4. Analytical Methods

In line with routine clinical practice in each center, TSH was measured between 6 and 14 weeks of pregnancy. In women with GDM, TSH and fT4 were also measured at the postpartum visit by the local laboratory of each center [electrochemiluminescence immunoassay (ECLIA) method, Roche Cobas e801]. The following fasting samples were analyzed by the laboratory of UZ Leuven: between 6 and 14 weeks: fT4, fT3, and TPO levels; between 26 and 28 weeks: TSH, fT4, and fT3 levels; and in women with GDM, fT3 was also analyzed postpartum. Concentrations of serum TSH (mIU/L), fT3 (pmol/L), fT4 (ng/dL), and TPO antibodies (IU/mL) were measured using the ECLIA method on the Roche Cobas e801 analyzer with Roche reagents (Roche Diagnostics, Indianapolis, IN, USA). The fT3/fT4 ratio was obtained by dividing serum concentrations of fT3 by fT4.

2.5. Statistical Analysis

Descriptive statistics were presented as frequencies and percentages for categorical variables and means with standard deviations or medians with an interquartile range for continuous variables. Categorical variables were analyzed using the chi-square test or the Fisher exact test in the case of low (<5) cell frequencies, whereas continuous variables were analyzed using the Kruskal–Wallis test for data with a non-normal distribution or one-way ANOVA test for data with a normal distribution.
To estimate crude and adjusted odds ratios (aORs) of GDM for each thyroid marker accounting for the matched case–control pairs, conditional logistic regression was used. Thyroid markers were both analyzed continuously and in tertiles. The tertiles were based on the thyroid marker distributions among the controls. ORs were calculated separately for the visit early during pregnancy (6–14 weeks) and at the time of the OGTT (26–28 weeks). For the multivariable models, we selected covariates including demographic factors and risk factors for GDM: smoking, education, parity, ethnicity, GWG, first-degree family history of diabetes, and a history of GDM. A correction for confounders (for non-white origin, education, smoking, and a history of impaired glucose intolerance) for the pregnancy outcomes was only applied to caesarian section (CS) and EGWG, as only these outcomes had a sufficient numbers of events. As TPO antibodies may influence both THs as well as glucose homeostasis, we repeated the analysis with exclusion of TPO-antibody-positive cases. A p-value < 0.05 was considered significant. Analyses were performed by statistician A. Laenen using SAS software.

3. Results

Two hundred and thirty-one women with GDM were matched, each to two controls based on age and BMI. Of this group, ninety-six (13.8%) were excluded for multiple reasons (Figure 1). In total, 597 women were included, of which 199 were GDM cases and 398 were matched controls. Compared to the NGT group, women with GDM smoked more before pregnancy, were more likely to have a first-degree family member with diabetes, had a more frequent history of GDM, and had a lower total weight gain (Table A1). TSH levels did not differ significantly between GDM cases and controls (Table 1). Mean fT4 levels were significantly lower among GDM women in the first trimester but not in the third trimester, whereas mean fT3 levels were significantly higher in the third but not in the first trimester (Table 1). Both fT3 and the fT3-to-fT4 ratio were positively associated with GDM in late pregnancy (Table 2). Women in the highest tertile of the fT3 levels had more frequent GDM compared with those in the lowest tertile. This association was no longer significant after adjusting for confounders, such as smoking, education, parity, ethnicity, GWG, first-degree family history of diabetes, and a history of GDM. The positive association between the fT3-to-fT4 ratio and GDM remained significant after adjustment with an aOR of 2.12 (95% CI 1.07; 4.23), comparing the highest with the lowest tertile. TSH levels were not associated with GDM (Table 2).
Increases in fT3 and the fT3-to-fT4 ratio were associated with a higher BMI, fasting glycaemia, post-load glycaemia, HOMA-IR, and fasting triglycerides and decreasing fasting HDL and ISSI-2 both in early and late pregnancy. Increasing fT3 was associated with decreasing fasting LDL in late pregnancy (Table 3).
Women in the upper fT3 tertile (52.9%) had a higher BMI, more often hypertension, higher HOMA-IR, lower HDL cholesterol, and higher fasting triglycerides at the first prenatal visit. At the OGTT, women in the upper tertile of fT3 more frequently had a diagnosis of GDM, EGWG, preeclampsia, gestational hypertension, a higher rate of cesarean sections (CS), and NICU admissions (Table 4). After adjusting for the previously mentioned confounders, only the rate of CS remained significantly higher in the upper tertile fT3 group [aOR 1.937, 95% CI (1.12; 3.36), p = 0.0187]. Women with GDM in the upper tertile fT3 group (61.6%) had a worse metabolic profile at the postpartum OGTT compared to women with GDM with lower fT3 (38.4%), but the rate of glucose intolerance was similar in both groups (Table A2).
Compared to women in the lower fT3-to-fT4 tertile [49.2%] group, women in the upper fT3-to-fT4 tertile [50.7%] group had a higher BMI, a higher waist circumference, and a worse lipid profile in early pregnancy, and were more insulin-resistant (Table 5). These metabolic parameters remained worse at the time of the OGTT, and GDM was significantly more often diagnosed in the upper fT3-to-fT4 tertile group [38.9% (79) vs. 26.9% (53), p = 0.011] compared to the lower fT3-to-fT4 tertile group. EGWG, preeclampsia, gestational hypertension, CS, and LGA occurred more often in the upper fT3-to-fT4 tertile group compared to the lower fT3-to-fT4 tertile group (Table 5). After adjusting for confounders, the risk of developing CS and EGWG was no longer significantly higher. There were no significant differences in the rate of glucose intolerance postpartum between both groups (Table A3).

4. Discussion

Existing data are conflicting on the association between GDM and THs during pregnancy. We found that both fT3 and the fT3-to-fT4 ratio in late pregnancy were significantly and positively associated with GDM. After adjusting for confounders such as smoking, education, parity, ethnicity, GWG, and a (first-degree family) history of diabetes or GDM, the association between the highest tertile of fT3 with GDM was no longer significant. In contrast, the fT3-to-fT4 ratio remained significantly associated with GDM after adjusting for confounders. FT4 early into pregnancy was negatively correlated with GDM after adjusting for confounders.
There is evidence that THs play an important role in glucose metabolism by regulating hepatic gluconeogenesis, in the intestinal absorption of glucose, and in the uptake of glucose in peripheral tissues. It is suggested that thyroid dysfunction may have a role in the emergence of GDM [4,5]. However, data are sparse on the association between different thyroid function markers and GDM based on the 2013 WHO criteria [12,13]. Data are also limited on the impact of thyroid function within the normal range on pregnancy outcomes and the risk of developing glucose intolerance in early postpartum.
Our results do not support previous studies in which TSH, even within the normal range in the first trimester, was positively associated with GDM [10,11]. This discrepant finding could be explained by differences in the study population (e.g., Caucasian vs. Chinese women), the study design, diagnostic criteria for GDM, and the sample size. However, our results are in line with earlier findings which show a negative correlation between fT4 concentration in early pregnancy and GDM [12,28,29,30]. Maternal fT4 is important for fetal development in the first trimester of pregnancy. In normal pregnancy, human chorionic gonadotrophin (HCG) stimulates the thyroid gland, which leads to a small and transient increase in maternal fT4. Mothers with thyroid insufficiency might be more prone to pregnancy complications (e.g., GDM) compared to euthyroid women [28,31]. A study of Rawal et al. showed that higher fT3 levels may be an indicator of GDM risk starting early into pregnancy [5]. A recent Chinese study showed that both peripheral and central thyroid resistance indices during the first half of pregnancy significantly affected the subsequent risk of GDM [13]. This study showed that higher levels of fT3 and a higher fT3-to-fT4 ratio were associated with increased GDM risk, even among euthyroid women [13]. However, this study investigates a Chinese population, though we also present the first data on the impact of TH markers on the risk of developing GDM in a Caucasian population using the 2013 WHO criteria.
Our study also provides information on the association between thyroid markers, insulin resistance, and beta-cell function during pregnancy and postpartum. In contrast to other studies [5,12,13], in our sub-analysis, the association between higher tertile fT3 was no longer significant after adjusting for confounders. Discrepancies between the results in our study and the Rawal study may be related to differences in the study population as a multiracial pregnancy cohort from the US was evaluated using the Carpenter and Coustan diagnostic criteria in the Rawal study, potentially resulting in the diagnosis of more severe degrees of hyperglycaemia compared to our study using the 2013 WHO criteria, identifying milder forms of GDM. Our study also had a substantially larger sample size.
FT3 is the primary biologically active hormone involved in glucose homeostasis. The increase in the fT3 hormone during pregnancy is responsible for stimulating endogenous glucose production. Of all circulating fT3, 80% is formed by peripheral deiodinase (DIO) activity, which is indicated by an increase in the fT3-to-fT4 ratio both in a normal pregnancy as well as in GDM pregnancies [5,32]. Furthermore, studies on euthyroid patients without diabetes showed a positive relation between FPG and fT3 as well as between FPG and the fT3-to-fT4 ratio, indicating that THs may play an important role in the different pathophysiological mechanisms of IFG and IGT [33,34]. It could also be hypothesized that changes in placental DIO activity could contribute to an increase in the fT3-to-fT4 ratio, e.g., when there is a decrease in DIO3 as a result of (mal)adaptation of the placenta or an accelerated placental maturation in women with GDM [31]. In addition, an Italian study found a single-nucleotide polymorphism Thr921a in the coding region of DIO2 gene to be associated with insulin resistance, lower glucose disposal, and increased BMI [35,36]. However, there is still controversy on the exact role of polymorphisms on the DOI2 gene and its association with glucose tolerance [37,38]. Our observational study cannot demonstrate any causal relationship between THs and GDM, but rather suggests that THs may play a role in the pathophysiology of GDM, and its related adverse pregnancy outcomes and the risk of developing adverse metabolic profile postpartum.
Women in the upper fT3 tertile and in the upper fT3-to-fT4 ratio group had a worse metabolic profile compared to women in the lower tertiles, both in early and later stages of pregnancy and for women with GDM also in early postpartum. Studies in NGT pregnant women without a history of thyroid dysfunction showed that a higher fT3-to-fT4 ratio was associated with a less favorable metabolic phenotype with a positive association between the fT3-to-fT4 ratio and BMI, triglycerides, and HOMA-IR, as also shown in our population [32,39]. Our results are also in line with findings in euthyroid middle-aged subjects, in which a higher fT3 and a higher fT3-to-fT4 ratio were associated with an unfavorable metabolic profile [34]. Additionally, our study demonstrated that women with a higher fT3 and higher fT3-to-fT4 ratio had more adverse pregnancy outcomes with higher rates of EGWG, preeclampsia, gestational hypertension, CS, LGA, and NICU admissions. After adjusting for confounders, the association between the upper tertile of the fT3-to-fT4 ratio and the risk of developing CS and EGWG and the association between the upper tertile fT3 and EGWG were no longer significant. Recent studies have shown a relationship between preeclampsia, gestational hypertension, CS, LGA, and NICU admissions in pregnant women with subclinical hypothyroidism [40,41,42,43,44]. Our study provides novel data showing that adverse pregnancy outcomes might also be related to THs within the normal range of fT3 and the fT3-to-fT4 ratio.
At the postpartum OGTT, women with GDM in the upper tertile fT3 and the upper fT3-to-fT4 ratio group had a persistently worse metabolic profile. However, the rate of glucose intolerance was similar between the lower and highest tertiles groups. To our knowledge, we present the first data on the metabolic profiles and the risk of developing glucose intolerance in early postpartum, according to different degrees of fT3 and the fT3-to-fT4 ratio during pregnancy. A study from China showed an association between thyroid antibodies (TPO-antibody and thyroglobulin antibody) and glucose metabolism postpartum, but no data on thyroid function postpartum were available [12].
A major strength of our study is the large multicentric prospective cohort with a large detailed dataset containing broad demographic, clinical, and obstetrical outcomes. We provide the first data on the association between thyroid markers and GDM diagnosed with the 2013 WHO criteria in euthyroid women in a Caucasian population. Additionally, GDM cases were matched for age and BMI with NGT controls. Data on the risk of developing GDM and adverse pregnancy outcomes were adjusted for important confounders. Women with hypothyroidism were excluded. Most TH markers were centrally analyzed by the same laboratory of UZ Leuven. A limitation of the study is that our cohort was mainly Caucasian, with a relatively low background risk of developing GDM. In addition, we had no data on β-HCG levels, iodine status, and neonatal thyroid function parameters.

5. Conclusions

In conclusion, we found that a higher fT3-to-fT4 ratio late during pregnancy is associated with GDM, adverse pregnancy outcomes, and a persistent worse metabolic profile in early postpartum.

Author Contributions

K.B., B.D. and A.V.d.B. conceived the sub-analysis. C.M. (Carolien Moyson), L.R., C.M. (Caro Minschart), and E.V.d.B. prepared the data and A.L. (Annouschka Laenen) carried out the statistical analysis. L.R. and C.M. (Caro Minschart) conducted the literature review. L.R., C.M. (Caro Minschart), and K.B. wrote the first draft of the manuscript. All authors contributed to the study design, including the data collection, data interpretation, and manuscript revision. The corresponding author L.R. had full access to all the data in the study and had final responsibility for the contents of the article and the decision to submit for publication. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This investigator-initiated study was funded by the Belgian National Lottery, the Fund of the Academic studies of UZ Leuven, and the Fund Yvonne and Jacques François-de Meurs of the King Boudewijn Foundation.

Institutional Review Board Statement

The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki, and approved by the Institutional Review Board all participating centers, with UZ Leuven, Belgium, as the coordinating center (B322201420693 26 March 2014).

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

Data Availability Statement

Original data generated and analyzed during this study are included in this published article.

Acknowledgments

K.B. and R.D. are the recipient of a ‘Fundamenteel Klinisch Navorserschap FWO Vlaanderen’. We thank Inge Beckstedde from the UZA site and Sylva Van Imschoot from the AZ St Jan Brugge site for their help with the recruitment and study assessments. We thank the research assistants, paramedics, and physicians of all participating centers for their support, and we thank all women who participated in the study.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Appendix A

Table
Table A1. Distribution of patient characteristics among women who had GDM and their matched controls.
Table A1. Distribution of patient characteristics among women who had GDM and their matched controls.
NGT
N = 398 (66.7%)		GDM
N = 199 (33.3%)		p-Value
General
Age (years)31.3 ± 4.331.9 ± 4.70.174
% Ethnic minorities 0.432
Asian3.8 (15)6.1 (12)
Northern African6.0 (24)4.1 (8)
Turkish1.5 (6)1.5 (3)
Black African1.3 (5)2.0 (4)
Middle East1.5 (6)0.5 (1)
Latin American2.0 (8)0.5 (1)
Other2.5 (10)4.1 (8)
% Multiparity49.5 (194)52.8 (105)0.488
% Higher degree diploma82.0 (300)76.0 (136)0.111
% Highest education: 0.220
primary school0.8 (3)3.2 (6)
till 15 years4.9 (19)4.7 (9)
high school18.0 (70)20.5 (39)
bachelor36.0 (140)36.3 (69)
master40.4 (157)35.3 (67)
% Paid job87.4 (346)91.3 (178)0.170
% Smoking before pregnancy26.5 (105)35.5 (70)0.028
% Smoking during pregnancy2.5 (10)5.6 (11)0.096
% First-degree family history of diabetes11.4 (43)18.6 (34)0.026
% First-degree family history of GDM4.4 (16)7.6 (14)0.163
% History of GDM *5.1 (10)29.8 (31)<0.001
% History of impaired glucose intolerance2.0 (7)2.7 (5)0.551
6–14 weeks visit
Weeks of gestation first visit with FPG11.9 ± 1.611.9 ± 1.70.571
BMI (kg/m2)25.7 ± 5.426.4 ± 5.30.057
% Overweight45.5 (181)51.0 (101)0.223
% Obesity19.6 (78)22.2 (44)0.453
Weight gain (first visit till OGTT) (kg)6.8 ± 3.26.9 ± 3.70.642
Delivery
Total weight gain (delivery—first visit) (kg)12.5 ± 5.28.7 ± 5.0<0.001
% Excessive weight gain35.1 (124)15.8 (26)<0.001
GDM: gestational diabetes mellitus; BMI: body mass index; OGTT: oral glucose tolerance test; overweight: BMI ≥ 25–29.9 kg/m2; obesity: BMI ≥ 30 kg/m2. * Data only available for women with GDM. Variables are presented as frequencies % (n); continuous variables are presented as mean ± SD if normally distributed and as median ± IQR if not normally distributed; differences are considered significant at p-value < 0.05. Bold p-values are significant at p < 0.05.
Table
Table A2. Postpartum characteristics in women with GDM according to lower and upper tertiles of fT3.
Table A2. Postpartum characteristics in women with GDM according to lower and upper tertiles of fT3.
fT3 Lower Tertile (3.0–4.1)
26–28 Weeks
N = 53 (38.4%)		fT3 Upper Tertile (4.6–7.2)
26–28 Weeks
N = 85 (61.6%)		p-Value
Postpartum
Glucose intolerance at postpartum OGTT 1.000
% IFG4.2 (2)5.6 (4)
% IGT12.5 (6)11.1 (8)
% Both IFG and IGT0 (0)1.4 (1)
BMI (kg/m2) *23.6 ± 4.028.8 ± 5.6<0.001
% Overweight *27.1 (13)73.9 (51)<0.001
% Obesity *6.2 (3)34.8 (24)<0.001
Systolic blood pressure (mmHg) *112.3 ± 10.1120.0 ± 12.40.002
Diastolic blood pressure (mmHg) *70.5 ± 9.175.6 ± 8.90.006
% Hypertension (≥140/90 mmHg)2.1 (1)8.7 (6)0.237
Fasting glycaemia (mmol/L) *4.72 (4.47–4.91)4.94 (4.69–5.16)0.003
30 min glucose OGTT (mmol/L) *7.80 (6.94–8.74)7.66 (6.77–8.60)0.637
1 h glucose OGTT (mmol/L) *7.30 (5.99–8.63)7.08 (5.80–8.21)0.488
2 h glucose OGTT (mmol/L) *5.50 (4.94–6.66)6.10 (5.00–6.91)0.423
Fasting insulin (pmol/L) *38.5 (23.6–58.8)54.3 (39.5–84.2)0.001
30 min insulin OGTT (pmol/L) *332.2 (228.0–418.0)388.2 (258.0–571.5)0.104
1 h insulin OGTT (pmol/L) *364.5 (273.3–501.4)451.7 (269.2–694.8)0.081
2 h insulin OGTT (pmol/L) *249.0 (164.4–424.7)338.4 (228.6–546.2)0.028
HbA1c (%) *5.3 (5.1–5.5)5.2 (5.1–5.5)0.820
Matsuda insulin sensitivity *0.9 (0.5–1.4)0.7 (0.4–0.9)0.006
Stumvoll index *−135.6 (−346.9–220.9)95.2 (−164.6–534.1)0.017
Oral disposition index *−90.0 (−338.5–159.0)69.0 (−136.3–212.3)0.020
HOMA-IR *8.1 (4.6–12.6)11.2 (8.9–19.2)<0.001
HOMA-B *642.9 (447.7–826.5)784.0 (582.4–1210.8)0.033
ISSI-2 *0.3 (0.2–0.7)0.2 (0.1–0.4)0.013
Insulinogenic index/Homa-IR *0.3 (0.2–0.4)0.2 (0.2–0.3)0.043
Fasting total cholesterol (mmol/L) *4.80 (4.13–5.21)4.60 (4.11–5.08)0.421
Fasting HDL (mmol/L) *1.67 (1.44–1.95)4.41 (1.26–1.67)0.003
Fasting LDL (mmol/L) *2.64 (2.16–3.13)2.67 (2.13–3.13)0.967
Fasting TG (mmol/L) *0.75 (0.62–0.96)0.89 (0.69–1.25)0.008
GDM: gestational diabetes mellitus; BMI: body mass index; OGTT: oral glucose tolerance test; HOMA-IR: homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance; HOMA-B: homeostasis model assessment for beta cell function; ISSI-2: insulin secretion-sensitivity index-2; HDL: high-density lipoprotein; LDL: low-density lipoprotein; TG: triglycerides; LGA: large-for-gestational age infant; SGA: small-for-gestational age infant; NICU: neonatal intensive care unit; IFG: impaired fasting glycaemia; IGT: impaired glucose tolerance; overweight: BMI ≥ 25–29.9 kg/m2; obesity: BMI ≥ 30 kg/m2. * Data only available for women with GDM. Categorical variables are presented as frequencies % (n); continuous variables are presented as mean ± SD if normally distributed and as median ± IQR if not normally distributed; differences are considered significant at p-value < 0.05. Bold p-values are significant at p < 0.05.
Table
Table A3. Postpartum characteristics in GDM according to lower and upper tertiles of the fT3-to-fT4 ratio.
Table A3. Postpartum characteristics in GDM according to lower and upper tertiles of the fT3-to-fT4 ratio.
GDM and fT3-to-fT4 Ratio
Lower Tertile (0.21 to 0.33)
26–28 Weeks
N = 53 (40.1%)		GDM and fT3-to-fT4 Ratio
Upper Tertile (0.38 to 0.66)
26–28 Weeks
N = 79 (59.8%)		p-Value
Postpartum
Glucose intolerance at postpartum OGTT17.8 (8)19.1 (13)0.721
% IFG6.7 (3)2.9 (2)
% IGT8.9 (4)13.2 (9)
% Both IFG and IGT2.2 (1)2.9 (2)
BMI (kg/m2) *23.1 ± 3.828.4 ± 5.6<0.001
% Overweight *22.2 (10)68.7 (46)<0.001
% Obesity *6.7 (3)31.3 (21)0.002
Systolic blood pressure (mmHg) *111.1 ± 14.0120.6 ± 13.6<0.001
Diastolic blood pressure (mmHg) *70.6 ± 9.075.5 ± 8.50.004
% Hypertension (≥140/90 mmHg) 6.7 (3)7.5 (5)1.000
Fasting glycaemia (mmol/L) *4.72 (4.50–4.94)4.94 (4.74–5.19)0.011
30 min glucose OGTT (mmol/L) *7.66 (6.55–8.94)7.83 (6.83–8.60)0.887
1 h glucose OGTT (mmol/L) *6.94 (6.10–8.60)7.35 (5.72–8.38)0.808
2 h glucose OGTT (mmol/L) *5.55 (4.99–6.27)5.91 (4.99–7.13)0.480
Fasting insulin (pmol/L) *38.8 (26.3–56.1)55.4 (38.1–101.0)<0.001
30 min insulin OGTT (pmol/L) *332.2 (230.7–454.7)418.5 (289.3–565.5)0.055
1 h insulin OGTT (pmol/L) *364.6 (229.2–554.1)487.1 (324.5–790.0)0.036
2 h insulin OGTT (pmol/L) *280.4 (189.9–453.6)342.8 (233.9–653.5)0.034
HbA1c (%) *5.2 (5.1–5.5)5.3 (5.0–5.5)0.590
Matsuda insulin sensitivity *0.8 (0.5–1.3)0.6 (0.4–0.9)0.002
Stumvoll index *−55.1 (−328.2–311.1)185.8 (−30.8–660.7)0.016
Oral disposition index *−81.9 (−349.3–190.3)97.6 (−35.8–254.9)0.018
HOMA-IR *8.3 (5.8–12.2)12.1 (8.4–22.6)<0.001
HOMA-B *675.0 (445.9–1074.5)787.7 (563.7–1287.3)0.050
ISSI-2 *0.3 (0.2–0.7)0.2 (0.1–0.4)0.004
Insulinogenic index/Homa-IR *0.3 (0.2–0.4)0.2 (0.1–0.3)0.047
Fasting total cholesterol (mmol/L) *4.87 (4.13–5.2)4.74 (4.34–5.16)0.869
Fasting HDL (mmol/L) *1.63 (1.30–1.95)1.39 (1.18–1.77)0.009
Fasting LDL (mmol/L) *2.66 (2.12–3.20)2.81 (2.31–3.13)0.516
Fasting TG (mmol/L) *0.80 (0.64–0.97)0.94 (0.64–1.43)0.062
fT4 (pmol/L)16.2 (14.7–17.9)15.5 (14.1–16.6)0.040
TSH (mIU/L)1.5 (0.9–1.9)1.5 (1.1–2.1)0.733
Lifestyle score: physical activity *1.0 (0–2.0)1.0 (0–2.0)0.879
Lifestyle score: diet *3.0 (0–6.0)2.0 (0–4.0)0.293
% breastfeeding *81.4 (35)80.6 (54)1.000
METs category at time of the OGTT * 0.161
% Low19.5 (8)12.3 (8)
% Moderate53.6 (22)43.1 (28)
% High26.8 (11)44.6 (29)
% MET category low *19.5 (8)12.3 (8)0.405
GDM: gestational diabetes mellitus; BMI: body mass index; OGTT: oral glucose tolerance test; HOMA-B: homeostasis model assessment for beta cell function; ISSI-2: insulin secretion-sensitivity index-2; HDL: high-density lipoprotein; LDL: low-density lipoprotein; TG: triglycerides; fT4: free T4; TSH: thyroid-stimulating hormone; MET: metabolic equivalent of task; LGA: large-for-gestational age infant; SGA: small-for-gestational age infant; NICU: neonatal intensive care unit; IFG: impaired fasting glycaemia; IGT: impaired glucose tolerance; overweight: BMI ≥ 25–29.9 kg/m2; obesity: BMI ≥ 30 kg/m2. * Data only available for women with GDM. Categorical variables are presented as frequencies % (n); continuous variables are presented as mean ± SD if normally distributed and as median ± IQR if not normally distributed; odds ratios with 95% confidence intervals are presented for significant differences; differences are considered significant at p-value < 0.05. Bold p-values are significant at p < 0.05.

References

  1. Thorpe-Beeston, J.G.; Nicolaides, K.H.; Felton, C.V.; Butler, J.; McGregor, A.M. Maturation of the secretion of thyroid hormone and thyroid-stimulating hormone in the fetus. N. Engl. J. Med. 1991, 324, 532–536. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  2. Visser, W.E.; Peeters, R.P. Interpretation of thyroid function tests during pregnancy. Best Pract. Res. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2020, 34, 101431. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  3. Krassas, G.; Poppe, K.; Glinoer, D. Thyroid function and human reproductive health. Endocr. Rev. 2010, 31, 702–755. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. Toulis, K.A.; Stagnaro-Green, A.; Negro, R. Maternal subclinical hypothyroidsm and gestational diabetes mellitus: A meta-analysis. Endocr. Pract. Off. J. Am. Coll. Endocrinol. Am. Assoc. Clin. Endocrinol. 2014, 20, 703–714. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  5. Rawal, S.; Tsai, M.Y.; Hinkle, S.N.; Zhu, Y.; Bao, W.; Lin, Y.; Panuganti, P.; Albert, P.S.; Ma, R.C.W.; Zhang, C. A Longitudinal Study of Thyroid Markers Across Pregnancy and the Risk of Gestational Diabetes. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2018, 103, 2447–2456. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  6. American Diabetes Association. 14. Management of Diabetes in Pregnancy: Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes—2019. Diabetes Care 2019, 42, S165–S172. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  7. Tudela, C.M.; Casey, B.M.; McIntire, D.D.; Cunningham, F.G. Relationship of subclinical thyroid disease to the incidence of gestational diabetes. Obs. Gynecol. 2012, 119, 983–988. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Sahu, M.T.; Das, V.; Mittal, S.; Agarwal, A.; Sahu, M. Overt and subclinical thyroid dysfunction among Indian pregnant women and its effect on maternal and fetal outcome. Arch. Gynecol. Obstet. 2010, 281, 215–220. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Ying, H.; Tang, Y.P.; Bao, Y.R.; Su, X.J.; Cai, X.; Li, Y.H.; Wang, D.F. Maternal TSH level and TPOAb status in early pregnancy and their relationship to the risk of gestational diabetes mellitus. Endocrine 2016, 54, 742–750. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Leng, J.; Li, W.; Wang, L.; Zhang, S.; Liu, H.; Li, W.; Wang, S.; Shao, P.; Pan, L.; Wang, S.; et al. Higher thyroid-stimulating hormone levels in the first trimester are associated with gestational diabetes in a Chinese population. Diabet. Med. A J. Br. Diabet. Assoc. 2019, 36, 1679–1685. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Li, G.; Wei, T.; Ni, W.; Zhang, A.; Zhang, J.; Xing, Y.; Xing, Q. Incidence and Risk Factors of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: A Prospective Cohort Study in Qingdao, China. Front. Endocrinol. 2020, 11, 636. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  12. Tang, L.; Li, P.; Zhou, H.; Li, L. A longitudinal study of thyroid markers during pregnancy and the risk of gestational diabetes mellitus and post-partum glucose metabolism. Diabetes/Metab. Res. Rev. 2021, 37, e3441. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  13. Liu, Z.-M.; Li, G.; Wu, Y.; Zhang, D.; Zhang, S.; Hao, Y.-T.; Chen, W.; Huang, Q.; Li, S.; Xie, Y.; et al. Increased Central and Peripheral Thyroid Resistance Indices During the First Half of Gestation Were Associated With Lowered Risk of Gestational Diabetes—Analyses Based on Huizhou Birth Cohort in South China. Front. Endocrinol. 2022, 13, 806256. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  14. Benhalima, K.; Van Crombrugge, P.; Verhaeghe, J.; Vandeginste, S.; Verlaenen, H.; Vercammen, C.; Dufraimont, E.; De Block, C.; Jacquemyn, Y.; Mekahli, F.; et al. The Belgian Diabetes in Pregnancy Study (BEDIP-N), a multi-centric prospective cohort study on screening for diabetes in pregnancy and gestational diabetes: Methodology and design. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth 2014, 14, 226. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Benhalima, K.; Van Crombrugge, P.; Moyson, C.; Verhaeghe, J.; Vandeginste, S.; Verlaenen, H.; Vercammen, C.; Maes, T.; Dufraimont, E.; De Block, C.; et al. The sensitivity and specificity of the glucose challenge test in a universal two-step screening strategy for gestational diabetes mellitus using the 2013 world health organization criteria. Diabetes Care 2018, 41, e111–e112. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. Benhalima, K.; Van Crombrugge, P.; Moyson, C.; Verhaeghe, J.; Vandeginste, S.; Verlaenen, H.; Vercammen, C.; Maes, T.; Dufraimont, E.; De Block, C.; et al. A Modified Two-Step Screening Strategy for Gestational Diabetes Mellitus Based on the 2013 WHO Criteria by Combining the Glucose Challenge Test and Clinical Risk Factors. J. Clin. Med. 2018, 7, 351. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Benhalima, K.; Van Crombrugge, P.; Moyson, C.; Verhaeghe, J.; Vandeginste, S.; Verlaenen, H.; Vercammen, C.; Maes, T.; Dufraimont, E.; De Block, C.; et al. Characteristics and pregnancy outcomes across gestational diabetes mellitus subtypes based on insulin resistance. Diabetologia 2019, 62, 2118–2128. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Benhalima, K.; Van Crombrugge, P.; Moysonl, C.; Verhaeghe, J.; Vandeginste, S.; Verlaenen, H.; Vercammens, C.; Maes, T.; Dufraimont, E.; De Block, C.; et al. Estimating the risk of gestational diabetes mellitus based on the 2013 WHO criteria: A prediction model based on clinical and biochemical variables in early pregnancy. Acta Diabetol. 2020, 57, 661–671. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. American Diabetes Association. 2. Classification and Diagnosis of Diabetes: Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes—2020. Diabetes Care 2020, 43, S14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. World Health Organization. Diagnostic criteria and classification of hyperglycaemia first detected in pregnancy: A World Health Organization Guideline. Diabetes Res. Clin. Pract. 2014, 103, 341–363. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Matthews, D.R.; Hosker, J.P.; Rudenski, A.S.; Naylor, B.A.; Treacher, D.F.; Turner, R.C. Homeostasis model assessment: Insulin resistance and beta-cell function from fasting plasma glucose and insulin concentrations in man. Diabetologia 1985, 28, 412–419. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  22. Matsuda, M.; DeFronzo, R.A. Insulin sensitivity indices obtained from oral glucose tolerance testing: Comparison with the euglycemic insulin clamp. Diabetes Care 1999, 22, 1462–1470. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  23. Kahn, S.E. The relative contributions of insulin resistance and beta-cell dysfunction to the pathophysiology of Type 2 diabetes. Diabetologia 2003, 46, 3–19. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  24. Kirwan, J.P.; Huston-Presley, L.; Kalhan, S.C.; Catalano, P.M. Clinically useful estimates of insulin sensitivity during pregnancy: Validation studies in women with normal glucose tolerance and gestational diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care 2001, 24, 1602–1607. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  25. Retnakaran, R.; Qi, Y.; Goran, M.I.; Hamilton, J.K. Evaluation of proposed oral disposition index measures in relation to the actual disposition index. Diabet. Med. A J. Br. Diabet. Assoc. 2009, 26, 1198–1203. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. Bekaert, A.; Devlieger, H.; Eeckels, R.; Martens, G. Standaarden van geboortegewicht-voor-zwangerschapsduur voor de Vlaamse boreling. Tijdschr. Voor Geneeskd. 2000, 56, 1–4. [Google Scholar]
  27. Institute of Medicine (US); National Research Council (US) Committee to Reexamine IOM Pregnancy Weight Guidelines. The National Academies Collection: Reports funded by National Institutes of Health. In Weight Gain during Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines; Rasmussen, K.M., Yaktine, A.L., Eds.; National Academy of Sciences: Washington, DC, USA, 2009. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Wang, Y.; Sun, F.; Wu, P.; Huang, Y.; Ye, Y.; Yang, X.; Yuan, J.; Liu, Y.; Zeng, H.; Wen, Y.; et al. A prospective study of early-pregnancy thyroid markers, lipid species, and risk of gestational diabetes mellitus. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2021, 107, e804–e814. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Yang, S.; Shi, F.T.; Leung, P.C.; Huang, H.F.; Fan, J. Low Thyroid Hormone in Early Pregnancy Is Associated with an Increased Risk of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2016, 101, 4237–4243. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Zhang, Y.; Dai, X.; Yang, S.; Zhang, C.; Han, M.; Huang, H.F.; Fan, J. Maternal low thyroxin levels are associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes in a Chinese population. PLoS ONE 2017, 12, e0178100. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Eerdekens, A.; Verhaeghe, J.; Darras, V.; Naulaers, G.; Van den Berghe, G.; Langouche, L.; Vanhole, C. The placenta in fetal thyroid hormone delivery: From normal physiology to adaptive mechanisms in complicated pregnancies. J. Matern.-Fetal Neonatal Med. Off. J. Eur. Assoc. Perinat. Med. Fed. Asia Ocean. Perinat. Soc. Int. Soc. Perinat. Obs. 2020, 33, 3857–3866. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Bassols, J.; Prats-Puig, A.; Soriano-Rodríguez, P.; García-González, M.M.; Reid, J.; Martínez-Pascual, M.; Mateos-Comerón, F.; de Zegher, F.; Ibáñez, L.; López-Bermejo, A. Lower Free Thyroxin Associates with a Less Favorable Metabolic Phenotype in Healthy Pregnant Women. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2011, 96, 3717–3723. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  33. Su, J.; Ding, X.; Xu, Y.; Liu, R.; Gu, M.; Chen, Y.; Yin, Y.; Wang, Y.; Sun, H.; Peng, Y. Different levels of thyroid hormones between impaired fasting glucose and impaired glucose tolerance: Free T3 affects the prevalence of impaired fasting glucose and impaired glucose tolerance in opposite ways. Clin. Endocrinol. 2014, 80, 890–898. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  34. Roef, G.L.; Rietzschel, E.R.; Van Daele, C.M.; Taes, Y.E.; De Buyzere, M.L.; Gillebert, T.C.; Kaufman, J.-M. Triiodothyronine and Free Thyroxine Levels are Differentially Associated with Metabolic Profile and Adiposity-Related Cardiovascular Risk Markers in Euthyroid Middle-Aged Subjects. Thyroid Off. J. Am. Thyroid Assoc. 2014, 24, 223–231. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  35. Mentuccia, D.; Proietti-Pannunzi, L.; Tanner, K.; Bacci, V.; Pollin, T.I.; Poehlman, E.T.; Shuldiner, A.R.; Celi, F.S. Association between a novel variant of the human type 2 deiodinase gene Thr92Ala and insulin resistance: Evidence of interaction with the Trp64Arg variant of the beta-3-adrenergic receptor. Diabetes 2002, 51, 880–883. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  36. Kaartokallio, T.; Cervera, A.; Kyllönen, A.; Laivuori, K.; Kere, J.; Laivuori, H.; Laivuori, H.; Heinonen, S.; Kajantie, E.; Kere, J.; et al. Gene expression profiling of pre-eclamptic placentae by RNA sequencing. Sci. Rep. 2015, 5, 14107. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  37. Strączkowski, M.; Nikołajuk, A.; Stefanowicz, M.; Matulewicz, N.; Fernandez-Real, J.M.; Karczewska-Kupczewska, M. Adipose Tissue and Skeletal Muscle Expression of Genes Associated with Thyroid Hormone Action in Obesity and Insulin Resistance. Thyroid Off. J. Am. Thyroid Assoc. 2021, 32, 206–214. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. Mullur, R.; Liu, Y.Y.; Brent, G.A. Thyroid hormone regulation of metabolism. Physiol. Rev. 2014, 94, 355–382. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. Knight, B.A.; Shields, B.M.; Hattersley, A.T.; Vaidya, B. Maternal hypothyroxinaemia in pregnancy is associated with obesity and adverse maternal metabolic parameters. Eur. J. Endocrinol. 2016, 174, 51–57. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. Wang, J.; Gong, X.H.; Peng, T.; Wu, J.N. Association of Thyroid Function During Pregnancy With the Risk of Pre-eclampsia and Gestational Diabetes Mellitus. Endocr. Pract. Off. J. Am. Coll. Endocrinol. Am. Assoc. Clin. Endocrinol. 2021, 27, 819–825. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Lucaccioni, L.; Ficara, M.; Cenciarelli, V.; Berardi, A.; Predieri, B.; Iughetti, L. Long term outcomes of infants born by mothers with thyroid dysfunction during pregnancy. Acta Bio-Med. Atenei Parm. 2020, 92, e2021010. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. Mahadik, K.; Choudhary, P.; Roy, P.K. Study of thyroid function in pregnancy, its feto-maternal outcome; a prospective observational study. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth 2020, 20, 769. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  43. Zhang, C.; Yang, X.; Zhang, Y.; Guo, F.; Yang, S.; Peeters, R.P.; Korevaar, T.I.M.; Fan, J.; Huang, H.F. Association Between Maternal Thyroid Hormones and Birth Weight at Early and Late Pregnancy. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2019, 104, 5853–5863. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  44. Casey, B.M.; Dashe, J.S.; Wells, C.E.; McIntire, D.D.; Byrd, W.; Leveno, K.J.; Cunningham, F.G. Subclinical Hypothyroidism and Pregnancy Outcomes. Obs. Gynecol. 2005, 105, 239–245. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Jcm 11 05016 g001 550
Figure 1. Flow chart of participants included in the sub-analysis. GDM: gestational diabetes mellitus; OGTT: oral glucose tolerance test; TSH: thyroid-stimulating hormone; IADPSG: International Association of the Diabetes and Pregnancy Study Groups; BMI: body mass index.
Figure 1. Flow chart of participants included in the sub-analysis. GDM: gestational diabetes mellitus; OGTT: oral glucose tolerance test; TSH: thyroid-stimulating hormone; IADPSG: International Association of the Diabetes and Pregnancy Study Groups; BMI: body mass index.
Jcm 11 05016 g001
Table
Table 1. Mean plasma concentrations of thyroid function markers in women with GDM and matched controls.
Table 1. Mean plasma concentrations of thyroid function markers in women with GDM and matched controls.
Total Cohort
N = 597		GDM
N = 199 (33.3%)		NGT
N = 398 (66.7%)		p-Value
6–14 weeks
Gestational age at blood collection (weeks)11.9 ± 1.612.0 ± 1.711.9 ± 1.60.571
TSH (mIU/L)1.3 ± 0.91.3 ± 0.91.3 ± 0.90.416
fT4 (pmol/L)14.9 ± 2.414.6 ± 2.115.0 ±2.60.039
fT3 (pmol/L)5.0 ± 0.85.0 ± 0.65.0 ± 0.80.288
Anti-TPO ≥ 34 IU/L (%)6.5 (39)6.6 (13)6.5 (26)1.000
fT3/fT4 (upper vs. lower tertile)0.34 ± 0.060.35 ± 0.050.34 ± 0.060.020
24–28 weeks
Gestational age at blood collection (weeks)26.9 ± 1.127.1 ± 1.226.9 ± 1.00.034
TSH (mIU/L)1.6 ± 0.81.5 ± 0.81.6 ± 0.80.104
fT4 (pmol/L)12.2 ± 1.612.1 ± 1.612.3 ± 1.60.146
fT3 (pmol/L)4.4 ± 0.54.5 ± 0.54.4 ± 0.50.013
fT3/fT4 (upper vs. lower tertile)0.36 ± 0.060.37 ± 0.070.36 ± 0.060.010
Change from 6–14 weeks to 26–28 weeks
TSH (mIU/L)0.3 ± 0.80.3 ± 0.80.3 ± 0.80.394
fT4 (pmol/L)−2.6 ± 1.9−2.5 ± 1.5−2.7 ± 2.00.396
fT3 (pmol/L)−0.7 ± 0.6−0.6 ± 0.5 −0.7 ± 0.70.075
fT3/fT4 (upper vs. lower tertile)0.02 ± 0.10.02 ± 0.00.02 ± 0.10.336
GDM: gestational diabetes mellitus; NGT: normal glucose tolerant; TSH: thyroid-stimulating hormone; fT3: free triiodothyronine 3; fT4: free thyroxine 4; TPO: thyroid peroxidase. Categorical variables are presented as frequencies % (n); continuous variables are presented as mean ± SD. p-values < 0.05 are considered significant. Bold p-values are significant p < 0.05.
Table
Table 2. Adjusted odds ratio’s for GDM according to tertiles of fT3, fT4, the fT3/fT4 ratio, and TSH.
Table 2. Adjusted odds ratio’s for GDM according to tertiles of fT3, fT4, the fT3/fT4 ratio, and TSH.
GDM
N = 199 (33.3%)		NGT
N = 398 (66.7%)		Crude ModelMultivariable Model a
6–14 weeks
fT3 (pmol/L)
Tertile 1: 3.3–4.628.6 (57)29.1 (116)11
Tertile 2:4.7–5.130.6 (61)32.7 (130)0.96 (0.61; 1.49)1.36 (0.73; 2.55)
Tertile 3: 5.2–13.840.7 (81)38.2 (152)1.09 (0.71; 1.69)0.75 (0.38; 1.46)
Upper decile: 5.8–13.828.7 (23)25.2 (39)0.76 (0.32; 1.78)0.99 (0.16; 6.28)
p for trend 0.9770.249
Per unit increment 1.00 (0.80; 1.26)0.77 (0.50; 1.18)
fT4 (pmol/L)
Tertile 1: 9.9–13.735.2 (70)29.9 (119)11
Tertile 2: 13.8–15.332.7 (65)32.7 (130)0.84 (0.56; 1.27)0.56 (0.31; 1.01)
Tertile 3: 15.4–47.132.2 (64)37.4 (149)0.72 (0.47; 1.10)0.57 (0.32; 1.02)
Upper decile: 17.2–47.121.3 (19)27.4 (45)0.72 (0.32; 1.61)0.54 (0.17; 1.77)
p for trend 0.0780.111
Per unit increment 0.93 (0.85; 1.01)0.91 (0.81; 1.02)
fT3/fT4 ratio
Tertile 1: 0.20–0.3130.1 (60)34.4 (137)11
Tertile 2: 0.32–0.3531.2 (62)34.2 (136)1.07 (0.70; 1.65)1.29 (0.68; 2.42)
Tertile 3: 0.36–1.0138.7 (77)31.4 (125)1.50 (0.95; 2.36)1.31 (0.69; 2.48)
Upper decile: 0.41–1.0129.4 (25)20.3 (35)1.26 (0.45; 3.52)0.74 (0.14; 3.80)
p for trend 0.0700.467
Per unit increment 20.03 (0.079; 510.43)5.00 (0.06; 383.24)
TSH (mIU/L)
Tertile 1: 0.00–0.8536.7 (73)31.6 (124)11
Tertile 2: 0.86–1.5933.2 (66)37.2 (146)0.79 (0.52; 1.20)1.07 (0.59; 1.98)
Tertile 3: 1.60–8.0030.1 (60)31.1 (122)0.80 (0.52; 1.23)1.15 (0.63; 2.10)
Upper decile: 2.40–8.0018.0 (16)17.3 (26)0.84 (0.34; 2.06)1.79 (0.37; 8.74)
p for trend 0.5760.651
Per unit increment 0.95 (0.78; 1.15)1.06 (0.81; 1.39)
24–28 weeks
fT3 (pmol/L)
Tertile 1: 3.0–4.126.6 (53)34.9 (139)11
Tertile 2: 4.2–4.530.6 (61)32.2 (128)1.29 (0.83; 2.01)1.63 (0.89; 2.98)
Tertile 3: 4.6–7.242.7 (85)32.9 (131)1.74 (1.13; 2.67)1.70 (0.91; 3.16)
Upper decile: 5.0–7.239.8 (35)22.3 (40)1.52 (0.71; 3.24)0.82 (0.17; 3.92)
p for trend 0.0140.174
Per unit increment 1.55 (1.09; 2.21)1.43 (0.85; 2.38)
fT4 (pmol/L)
Tertile 1: 8.0–11.433.2 (66)30.9 (123)11
Tertile 2: 11.5–12.736.7 (73)32.7 (130)1.06 (0.70; 1.61)0.84 (0.44; 1.57)
Tertile 3: 12.8–24.030.1 (60)36.4 (145)0.78 (0.51; 1.18)0.77 (0.43; 1.39)
Upper decile: 14.3–24.018.5 (15)26.8 (45)0.65 (0.24; 1.80)1.30 (0.28; 6.00)
p for trend 0.1570.467
Per unit increment 0.92 (0.83; 1.03)0.94 (0.80; 1.11)
fT3/fT4 ratio
Tertile 1: 0.21–0.3326.6 (53)36.2 (144)11
Tertile 2: 0.34–0.3733.7 (67)32.7 (130)1.45 (0.94; 2.24)1.82 (0.98; 3.40)
Tertile 3: 0.38–0.6639.7 (79)31.2 (124)1.85 (1.18; 2.92)2.12 (1.07; 4.23)
Upper decile: 0.44–0.6637.6 (32)16.8 (29)1.92 (0.67; 5.52)2.12 (0.34; 13.00)
p for trend 0.0010.042
Per unit increment 190.42 (8.09; 4483.4)134.84 (1.19; 15302)
TSH (mIU/L)
Tertile 1: 0.04–1.2038.2 (76)30.0 (119)11
Tertile 2: 1.21–1.8429.1 (58)34.5 (137)0.64 (0.41; 0.98)0.54 (0.29; 1.04)
Tertile 3: 1.85–5.9532.7 (65)35.5 (141)0.69 (0.45; 1.06)0.89 (0.49; 1.63)
Upper decile: 2.60–5.9520.0 (19)25.6 (41)0.76 (0.31; 1.87)1.56 (0.38; 6.45)
p for trend 0.1450.713
Per unit increment 0.84 (0.66; 1.06)1.06 (0.77; 1.47)
GDM: gestational diabetes mellitus; NGT: normal glucose tolerant; TSH: thyroid-stimulating hormone; fT3: free triiodothyronine; fT4: free thyroxine. Upper decile: ≥90th percentile. Boldface indicates statistically significant results. a Adjusted for smoking, education, parity, ethnicity, gestational weight gain, first-degree family history of diabetes, and history of GDM.
Table
Table 3. Bivariate correlations between maternal thyroid function tests at 26–28 weeks of pregnancy and selected parameters in women with GDM and their matched controls.
Table 3. Bivariate correlations between maternal thyroid function tests at 26–28 weeks of pregnancy and selected parameters in women with GDM and their matched controls.
fT3fT3/fT4 Ratio
rprp
General
Age (years)−0.0760.0630.0210.610
6–14 weeks
BMI (kg/m2)0.327<0.0010.365<0.001
Waist circumference (cm)0.269<0.0010.320<0.001
Systolic blood pressure (mmHg)0.278<0.0010.230<0.001
Diastolic blood pressure (mmHg)0.225<0.0010.195<0.001
Fasting glycaemia (mmol/L)0.1310.0010.162<0.001
Fasting insulin (pmol/L)0.249<0.0010.294<0.001
HOMA-IR0.257<0.0010.305<0.001
HOMA-B0.0710.0850.143<0.001
HbA1c (mmol/mol and %)0.0220.5970.0780.057
Fasting Total cholesterol (mmol/L)−0.0450.2760.1120.006
Fasting HDL (mmol/L)−0.196<0.001−0.156<0.001
Fasting LDL (mmol/L)0.0110.7930.1350.001
Fasting TG (mmol/L)0.1260.0020.252<0.001
26–28 weeks
BMI (kg/m2)0.345<0.0010.400<0.001
Systolic blood pressure (mmHg)0.300<0.0010.318<0.001
Diastolic blood pressure (mmHg)0.273<0.0010.265<0.001
Glucose non-fasting 0 min on GCT (mmol/L)0.0690.0950.1220.003
Glucose 60 min on GCT (mmol/L)0.0700.0910.0920.025
Fasting glycaemia OGTT(mmol/L)0.173<0.0010.242<0.001
30 min glucose OGTT (mmol/L)0.1360.0010.1050.010
1 h glucose OGTT (mmol/L)0.1200.0030.171<0.001
2 h glucose OGTT (mmol/L)0.0930.0230.1340.001
Fasting insulin OGTT (pmol/L)0.285<0.0010.379<0.001
30 min insulin OGTT (pmol/L)0.176<0.0010.200<0.001
1 h insulin OGTT (pmol/L)0.207<0.0010.319<0.001
2 h insulin OGTT (pmol/L)0.205<0.0010.297<0.001
HbA1c (mmol/mol and %)0.142<0.0010.260<0.001
Matsuda insulin sensitivity−0.269<0.001−0.349<0.001
HOMA-IR0.290<0.0010.395<0.001
HOMA-B0.1060.0090.1240.002
ISSI-2−0.194<0.001−0.259<0.001
Insulinogenic index/HOMA-IR−0.179<0.001−0.226<0.001
Fasting total cholesterol (mmol/L)−0.190<0.001−0.0380.356
Fasting HDL (mmol/L)−0.213<0.001−0.180<0.001
Fasting LDL (mmol/L)−0.1360.001−0.0370.369
Fasting TG (mmol/L)0.0740.0710.206<0.001
Delivery
Total weight gain (delivery—first visit) (kg)−0.0210.6290.0210.622
Weight baby (g)0.0140.7340.0080.838
GDM: gestational diabetes mellitus; BMI: body mass index; OGTT: oral glucose tolerance test; HOMA-IR: homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance; HOMA-B: homeostasis model assessment for beta cell function; ISSI-2: insulin secretion sensitivity index-2; HDL: high-density lipoprotein; LDL: low-density lipoprotein; TG: triglycerides; overweight: BMI ≥ 25–29.9 kg/m2; obesity: BMI ≥ 30 kg/m2. Differences are considered significant at p-value < 0.05. Bold p-values are significant p < 0.05.
Table
Table 4. Distribution of selected patient characteristics according to lower and upper tertiles of fT3.
Table 4. Distribution of selected patient characteristics according to lower and upper tertiles of fT3.
fT3 Lower Tertile (3.0–4.1)
26–28 Weeks
N = 192 (47.1%)		fT3 Upper Tertile (4.6–7.2)
26–28 Weeks
N = 216 (52.9%)		p-Value
General
Age (years)32.1 ± 4.031.2 ± 4.70.047
6–14 weeks visit
BMI (kg/m2)23.9 ± 4.427.7 ± 6.0<0.001
% Overweight30.2 (58)61.6 (133)<0.001
% Obesity8.3 (16)32.9 (71)<0.001
Waist circumference (cm)84.1 ± 11.091.9 ± 13.6<0.001
% Waist 80–88 cm44.9 (84)26.5 (56)<0.001
% Waist ≥ 88 cm22.5 (42)53.5 (113)
Weight gain (first visit till OGTT) (kg)6.7 ± 3.36.7 ± 3.40.525
Systolic blood pressure (mmHg)112.3 ± 8.7119.4 ± 12.1<0.001
Diastolic blood pressure (mmHg) 69.2 ± 7.173.5 ± 8.9<0.001
% Hypertension (≥140/90 mmHg) 0.5 (1)6.9 (15)<0.001
Fasting glycaemia (mmol/L)2.15 (2.02–2.22)2.17 (2.07–2.27)0.004
Fasting insulin (pmol/L)41.1 (31.0–53.8)60.1 (43.0–86.8)<0.001
HOMA-IR 8.2 (6.3–11.3)12.2 (8.6–18.5)<0.001
HOMA-B760.7 (582.1–1052.9)1015.4 (735.8–1519.6)<0.001
HbA1c (mmol/mol and %)31.1 (30.1–33.3)
5.0 (4.9–5.2)		31.1 (30.1–33.3)
5.0 (4.9–5.2)		0.779
Fasting total cholesterol (mmol/L)2.2 (2.0–2.4)2.1 (1.9–2.4)0.400
Fasting HDL (mmol/L)0.85 (0.75–0.96)0.77 (0.68–0.88)<0.001
Fasting LDL (mmol/L)1.15 (0.91–1.32)1.38 (0.94–1.33)0.655
Fasting TG (mmol/L)0.96 (0.79–1.20)1.04 (0.86–1.45)0.002
fT4 (pmol/L)14.7 (13.4–16.1)14.8 (13.5–16.0)0.477
TSH (mIU/L)1.2 (0.8–1.8)1.1 (0.6–1.8)0.136
% Anti-TPO-positive (≥34 IU/L)6.8 (13)6.0 (13)0.840
Total score lifestyle
Physical activity1.0 (0–2.0)1.0 (0–2.0)0.073
Diet3.0 (0–5.0)2.0 (0–4.0)0.009
24–28 weeks visit
BMI (kg/m2)26.3 ± 4.430.2 ± 5.7<0.001
% Overweight51.6 (95)78.4 (167)<0.001
% Obesity16.3 (30)47.9 (102)<0.001
Systolic blood pressure (mmHg)109.5 ± 8.7116.0 ± 11.4<0.001
Diastolic blood pressure (mmHg) 64.9 ± 6.569.6 ± 8.4<0.001
% Hypertension (≥140/90 mmHg) 0.5 (1)4.6 (10)0.012
Weeks of gestation at OGTT26.9 ± 1.127.0 ± 1.10.685
Fasting glycaemia OGTT (mmol/L)4.38 (4.16–4.66)4.50 (4.30–4.82)<0.001
30 min glucose OGTT (mmol/L)7.21 (6.49–8.10)7.55 (6.72–8.49)0.003
1 h glucose OGTT (mmol/L)7.52 (6.19–9.02)8.27 (6.94–9.43)0.007
2 h glucose OGTT (mmol/L)6.60 (5.44–7.85)7.16 (5.88–8.27)0.008
% GDM diagnosis 27.6 (53)39.3 (85)0.016
Fasting insulin OGTT (pmol/L)56.4 (41.2–78.2)79.9 (61.3–113.7)<0.001
30 min insulin OGTT (pmol/L)442.4 (336.4–677.50)583.1 (407.7–872.1)<0.001
1 h insulin OGTT (pmol/L)542.8 (382.3–828.8)693.7 (478.8–1014.0)<0.001
2 h insulin OGTT (pmol/L)513.9 (344.3–786.0)692.0 (452.8–1005.0)<0.001
HbA1c (mmol/mol and %)30.1 (29.0–32.2)
4.9 (4.8–5.1)		31.1 (30.1–33.3)
5.0 (4.9–5.2)		0.002
Matsuda insulin sensitivity0.6 (0.4–0.8)0.4 (0.3–0.5)<0.001
HOMA-IR11.0 (7.9–15.9)16.1 (11.7–23.5)<0.001
HOMA-B1281.4 (913.4–1759.6)1635.1 (1147.3–2292.2)<0.001
ISSI-2 0.1 (0.1–0.3)0.1 (0–0.2)<0.001
Insulinogenic index/HOMA-IR 0.3 (0.2–0.5)0.3 (0.2–0.3)<0.001
Fasting total cholesterol (mmol/L)6.47 (5.74–7.15)5.97 (5.46–6.70)<0.001
Fasting HDL (mmol/L)2.03 (1.75–2.31)1.82 (1.59–2.08)<0.001
Fasting LDL (mmol/L)3.59 (2.93–4.29)3.21 (2.75–3.90)0.004
Fasting TG (mmol/L)1.84 (1.46–2.25)1.95 (1.63–2.48)0.015
GDM treatment *
GDM27.6 (53)39.3 (85)0.016
% Need for treatment with insulin 3.7 (7)4.6 (10)1.000
Gestational age at start insulin30.7 ± 3.029.6 ± 2.00.551
Delivery
% Excessive weight gain21.3 (38)36.2 (64)0.002
Gestational age (weeks)39.3 ± 1.638.9 ± 1.90.036
% Preeclampsia1.0 (2)4.6 (10)0.040
% Gestational hypertension3.1 (6)8.3 (18)0.034
% Cesarean sections (total)16.1 (31)29.4 (63)0.002
% Planned CS4.7 (9)16.8 (36)<0.001
% Emergency CS (during labor)11.5 (2)12.6 (27)0.762
% Macrosomia (>4 kg)6.2 (12)8.4 (18)0.451
% LGA8.8 (17)13.9 (30)0.122
% SGA5.7 (11)4.6 (10)0.659
% Neonatal hypoglycaemia <2.22 mmol/L5.8 (10)9.8 (18)0.172
% NICU admission6.8 (13)14.9 (32)0.011
GDM: gestational diabetes mellitus; BMI: body mass index; OGTT: oral glucose tolerance test; HOMA-IR: homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance; HOMA-B: homeostasis model assessment for beta cell function; HDL: high-density lipoprotein; LDL: low-density lipoprotein; TG: triglycerides; LGA: large-for-gestational age infant; SGA: small-for-gestational age infant; NICU: neonatal intensive care unit; overweight: BMI ≥ 25–29.9 kg/m2; obesity: BMI ≥ 30 kg/m2. * Data only available for women with GDM. Categorical variables are presented as frequencies %(n); continuous variables are presented as mean ± SD if normally distributed and as median ± IQR if not normally distributed; differences are considered significant at p-value < 0.05. Bold p-values are significant p < 0.05.
Table
Table 5. Distribution of patient characteristics according to lower and upper tertiles of the fT3-to-fT4 ratio.
Table 5. Distribution of patient characteristics according to lower and upper tertiles of the fT3-to-fT4 ratio.
fT3-to-fT4 Ratio
Lower Tertile (0.21 to 0.33) 26–28 Weeks
N = 197 (49.2%)		fT3-to-fT4 Ratio
Upper Tertile (0.38 to 0.66)
26–28 Weeks
N = 203 (50.7%)		p-Value
General
Age (years)31.6 ± 4.131.8 ± 4.60.752
% History of impaired glucose intolerance0.6 (1)4.9 (9)0.020
6–14 weeks visit
Weeks of gestation first visit with FPG12.0 ± 1.611.9 ± 1.70.669
BMI (kg/m2)23.3 ± 3.928.0 ± 5.6<0.001
% Overweight27.4 (54)66.0 (134)<0.001
% Obesity6.1 (12)32.5 (66)
Waist circumference (cm)83.4 ± 10.092.6 ± 12.5<0.001
% Waist 80–88 cm42.0 (81)30.6 (61)<0.001
% Waist ≥ 88 cm22.3 (43)55.8 (111)
Weight gain (first visit till OGTT) (kg)6.4 ± 3.37.2 ± 3.00.007
Systolic blood pressure (mmHg)112.4 ± 9.0118.2 ± 11.5<0.001
Diastolic blood pressure (mmHg) 69.3 ± 7.372.7 ± 9.0<0.001
% Hypertension (≥140/90 mmHg) 0.5 (1)6.9 (14)<0.001
Fasting glycaemia (mmol/L)4.61 (4.33–4.77)4.66 (4.50–4.88)0.002
Fasting insulin (pmol/L)39.4 (30.6–53.6)62.5 (43.9–89.1)<0.001
HOMA-IR 8.0 (6.1–11.2)12.9 (9.0–18.7)<0.001
HOMA-B742.9 (582.6–1052.5)1048.9 (774.0–1470.9)<0.001
HbA1c (mmol/mol and %)31.1 (30.1–33.3)
5.0 (4.9–5.2)		31.1 (30.1–33.3)
5.0 (4.9–5.2)		0.053
Fasting total cholesterol (mmol/L)4.54 (3.98–5.11)4.75 (4.31–5.26)0.006
Fasting HDL (mmol/L)1.82 (1.57–2.03)1.67 (1.44–1.90)<0.001
Fasting LDL (mmol/L)2.31 (1.85–2.70)2.49 (2.11–2.93)<0.001
Fasting TG (mmol/L)0.91 (0.77–1.13)1.10 (0.86–1.57)<0.001
fT4 (pmol/L)15.7 (14.4–16.9)13.8 (12.8–14.9)<0.001
TSH (mIU/L)1.1 (0.60; 1.75)1.2 (0.8–1.9)0.039
% Anti-TPO-positive (≥34 IU/L)6.6 (13)7.9 (16)0.702
24–28 weeks visit
BMI (kg/m2)25.6 ± 3.930.7 ± 5.3<0.001
% Overweight44.8 (7)86.4 (171)<0.001
% Obesity12.9 (25)50.0 (99)<0.001
Systolic blood pressure (mmHg)109.7 ± 9.0116.6 ± 11.2<0.001
Diastolic blood pressure (mmHg) 65.2 ± 6.969.7 ± 8.2<0.001
% Hypertension (≥140/90 mmHg) 0 (0)4.5 (9)0.004
Fasting glycaemia OGTT(mmol/L)4.38 (4.16–4.61)4.55 (4.33–4.88)<0.001
30 min glucose OGTT (mmol/L)7.21 (6.44–7.99)7.46 (6.83–8.38)0.006
1 h glucose OGTT (mmol/L)7.49 (6.05–8.82)8.32 (6.99–9.49)<0.001
2 h glucose OGTT (mmol/L)6.60 (5.38–7.88)7.16 (5.94–8.27)0.004
Fasting insulin OGTT (pmol/L)53.7 (39.8–76.7)84.8 (64.3–124.9)<0.001
30 min insulin OGTT (pmol/L)466.9 (325.5–661.2)591.9 (418.9–867.9)<0.001
1 h insulin OGTT (pmol/L)518.9 (357.2–741.0)752.4 (563.2–1038.0)<0.001
2 h insulin OGTT (pmol/L)497.8 (334.7–737.6)757.0 (499.2–1046.5)<0.001
% GDM diagnosis 26.9 (53)38.9 (79)0.011
HbA1c (mmol/mol and %)30.1 (29.0–32.2)
4.9 (4.8–5.1)		31.1 (30.1–33.3)
5.0 (4.9–5.2)		<0.001
Matsuda insulin sensitivity0.6 (0.4–0.8)0.4 (0.3–0.5)<0.001
HOMA-IR10.7 (7.7–15.4)17.5 (12.5–25.8)<0.001
HOMA-B1254.5 (889.6–1699.7)1668.0 (1146.0–2311.7)<0.001
ISSI-2 0.2 (0.1–0.3)0.1 (0.0–0.1)<0.001
Insulinogenic index/HOMA-IR 0.3 (0.2–0.5)0.2 (0.2–0.3)<0.001
Fasting total cholesterol (mmol/L)6.09 (5.60–6.60)6.14 (5.62–6.91)0.937
Fasting HDL (mmol/L)1.98 (1.72–2.29)1.77 (1.51–2.11)<0.001
Fasting LDL (mmol/L)3.36 (2.80–3.93)3.31 (2.80–3.98)0.961
Fasting TG (mmol/L)1.73 (1.39–2.16)2.04 (1.69–2.56)<0.001
Increase (difference) in TG between the first and second visit (mmol/L)0.76 (0.50–1.08)0.87 (0.59–1.24)0.033
fT4 (pmol/L)13.3 (12.5–14.3)11.1 (10.4–11.8)<0.001
TSH (mIU/L)1.4 (1.0–2.0)1.7 (1.1–2.1)0.005
Total score lifestyle:
Physical activity1.0 (0–2.0)1.0 (0–2.0)0.216
Diet3.0 (1.0–5.0)2.0 (0–4.0)0.004
GDM treatment *
GDM26.9 (53)38.9 (79)0.011
% Need for treatment with insulin 3.0 (6)5.9 (12)0.540
Gestational age at start insulin29.8 ± 1.230.2 ± 1.60.666
Delivery
Total weight gain (delivery—first visit) (kg)10.7 ± 4.911.6 ± 5.70.038
% Excessive weight gain15.3 (27)39.5 (70)<0.001
Gestational age (weeks)39.3 ± 1.539.1 ± 1.80.094
% Preeclampsia0.5 (1)4.4 (9)0.020
% Gestational hypertension2.0 (4)8.9 (18)0.003
% Preterm delivery6.1 (12)7.4 (15)0.692
% Induction labor27.9 (55)37.1 (75)0.055
% Cesarean sections (total)12.7 (25)32.2 (65)<0.001
% Planned CS6.1 (12)17.3 (35)<0.001
% Emergency CS (during labor)6.6 (13)14.8 (30)0.009
% Macrosomia (>4 kg)6.1 (12)9.9 (20)0.197
% LGA8.1 (16)17.8 (36)0.005
% SGA4.1 (8)3.0 (6)0.597
% Neonatal hypoglycaemia <2.22 mmol/L5.6 (10)8.7 (15)0.304
% NICU admission6.1 (12)16.8 (34)<0.001
GDM: gestational diabetes mellitus; BMI: body mass index; OGTT: oral glucose tolerance test; HOMA-B: homeostasis model assessment for beta cell function; HDL: high-density lipoprotein; LDL: low-density lipoprotein; TG: triglycerides; fT4: free T4; TSH: thyroid-stimulating hormone; LGA: large-for-gestational age infant; SGA: small-for-gestational age infant; NICU: neonatal intensive care unit; IFG: impaired fasting glycaemia; IGT: impaired glucose tolerance; overweight: BMI ≥ 25–29.9 kg/m2; obesity: BMI ≥ 30 kg/m2. * Data only available for women with GDM. Categorical variables are presented as frequencies % (n); continuous variables are presented as mean ±SD if normally distributed and as median ± IQR if not normally distributed; odds ratios with 95% confidence intervals are presented for significant differences; differences are considered significant at p-value < 0.05. Bold p-values are significant p < 0.05.
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Raets, L.; Minschart, C.; Van den Bruel, A.; Van den Bogaert, E.; Van Crombrugge, P.; Moyson, C.; Verhaeghe, J.; Vandeginste, S.; Verlaenen, H.; Vercammen, C.; et al. Higher Thyroid fT3-to-fT4 Ratio Is Associated with Gestational Diabetes Mellitus and Adverse Pregnancy Outcomes. J. Clin. Med. 2022, 11, 5016. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm11175016

AMA Style

Raets L, Minschart C, Van den Bruel A, Van den Bogaert E, Van Crombrugge P, Moyson C, Verhaeghe J, Vandeginste S, Verlaenen H, Vercammen C, et al. Higher Thyroid fT3-to-fT4 Ratio Is Associated with Gestational Diabetes Mellitus and Adverse Pregnancy Outcomes. Journal of Clinical Medicine. 2022; 11(17):5016. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm11175016

Chicago/Turabian Style

Raets, Lore, Caro Minschart, Annick Van den Bruel, Emmelien Van den Bogaert, Paul Van Crombrugge, Carolien Moyson, Johan Verhaeghe, Sofie Vandeginste, Hilde Verlaenen, Chris Vercammen, and et al. 2022. "Higher Thyroid fT3-to-fT4 Ratio Is Associated with Gestational Diabetes Mellitus and Adverse Pregnancy Outcomes" Journal of Clinical Medicine 11, no. 17: 5016. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm11175016

APA Style

Raets, L., Minschart, C., Van den Bruel, A., Van den Bogaert, E., Van Crombrugge, P., Moyson, C., Verhaeghe, J., Vandeginste, S., Verlaenen, H., Vercammen, C., Maes, T., Dufraimont, E., Roggen, N., De Block, C., Jacquemyn, Y., Mekahli, F., De Clippel, K., Loccufier, A., Laenen, A., ... Benhalima, K. (2022). Higher Thyroid fT3-to-fT4 Ratio Is Associated with Gestational Diabetes Mellitus and Adverse Pregnancy Outcomes. Journal of Clinical Medicine, 11(17), 5016. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm11175016

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop