EEG Techniques with Brain Activity Localization, Specifically LORETA, and Its Applicability in Monitoring Schizophrenia
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- Delta (δ): less than 4 Hz;
- Theta (θ): 4–7.5 Hz;
- Alpha (α): 7.5–12.5 Hz;
- Beta (β): 12.5–30 Hz;
- Gamma (γ): 30–80 Hz.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Search Strategy
2.2. Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria
- Conducted with human participants;
- Used EEG as the primary experimental method.
- Written in languages other than English or Russian;
- Classified as reviews.
3. Results
3.1. EEG Techniques with Localization of Brain Activity
3.2. Alterations in Frontal Lobe Activity in Schizophrenia
3.3. Alterations in Temporal Lobe Activity in Schizophrenia
3.4. Particularities of the Alterations in Brain Activity in First-Episode Patients
3.5. The Impact of Therapy on the Recovery of Brain Activity in Schizophrenia
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Study | Date | Sample Size | Population Characteristics | Drug Therapy (S) | Methods | Paradigms | EEG Sensors (Scalp) | Results |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Bachiller et al. [73] | 2015 Dec | SCZ = 31, CTL = 38 | S: 36.25 ± 9.62 years, (M:F) = 21:10; C: 33.35 ± 12.26 years, (M:F) = 23:15 | Atypical antipsychotics | ERP (N200, P300), sLORETA | 3-stimulus oddball paradigm | 17 (Fp1, Fp2, F3, F4, C3, C4, P3, P4, O1, O2, F7, F8, T5, T6, Fz, Pz and Cz) | Over the superior and medial frontal gyrus (BA10, BA11), orbital frontal gyrus (BA11), bilateral anterior cingulate gyrus (BA33), and cingulate sulcus (BA31, BA32, BA25), P3b source activity was lower in the SCZ group. |
Gallinat et al. [74] | 2002 Sep | dfSCZ = 21, CTL = 21 | dfS: 30.0 ± 9.8 years, (M:F) = 14:7; CTL: 30.0 ± 8.6 years, (M:F) = 14:7 | Drug-free | ERP (N1), LORETA | Listening to 230 sounds of different pitches (1000 and 2000 Hz) | 32 (with the additional electrodes FC1, FC2, FC5, FC6, T1, T2, CP5, CP6, PO9, and PO10) | The mean reaction time of patients was higher. In individuals with SCZ, the amplitude of N1 in Cz was significantly smaller. A decrease in N1 amplitude in persons with SCZ was observed in the area of temporal electrodes, predominantly on the left side. |
Veiga et al. [75] | 2003 Sep | SCZ = 25, CTL = 40 | S: 29.6 ± 7.98 years, (M:F) = 16:9 females; CTL: 30.4 ± 7.99 years, (M:F) = 23:17 | Antipsychotics/typical or atypical neuroleptics | LORETA, fast Fourier transform (FFT) | Eyes-closed alert/resting | 19 mono-polar | SCZ only varied substantially from CTL during resting conditions in frontal regions at the delta–theta frequency range. |
Mucci et al. [76] | 2005 Jul 30 | CTL = 42 | 22.9 ± 2.6 years, (M:F) = 17:25 | Drug-free | ERP (P300), LORETA, neuropsychological evaluation | Three-tone auditory oddball paradigm (P300) | 32 | In highly psychotic women, a higher current density was shown in the left frontal and temporal regions, including BA11 and 38, compared with women with a low level of psychosis, and P3a activity was shifted to the left. |
Takashi et al. [77] | 2013 Feb 1 | SCZ = 410, CTL = 247 | S: 45.6 ± 8.9 years, (M:F) = 299:111; CTL: 43.2 ± 11.4 years, (M:F) = 118:129 | Second-generation antipsychotics/first-generation antipsychotics/combination/drug-free | eLORETA, ERP (P3a, MMN) | Auditory oddball paradigm | 34 (Fp1, Fp2, Fz, F3, F4, F7, F8, FC1, FC2, FC5, FC6, Cz, C3, C4, CP1, CP2, CP5, CP6, Pz, P3, P4, P7, P8, O1, O2, PO9, PO10, Iz, T1, T2, T7, T8, TP9, and TP10) | SCZ observed significant reductions in MMN and P3a responses in the temporal, frontal, and parietal regions. These abnormalities may have resulted from impaired orientation or shifting attention to infrequent stimuli. |
Wölwer et al. [70] | 2012 Jul 30 | SCZ (first episode patients) = 12, CTL = 12 | S: 32.2 ± 8.2 years, (M:F) = 8:4; CTL: 30.1 ± 5.8 years, (M:F) = 8:4 | Not stated | LORETA | Trail-making test (TMT)-B | 32 | Significant correlations were found between task performance and brain current density, especially in the case of CTL. In SCZ, these correlations had a similar character, although they were significantly weaker. |
Mulert et al. [78] | 2001 Apr | SCZ = 18, CTL = 25 | S: 36.27 ± 11.04 years, (M:F) = 7:11; CTL: 34.16 ± 10.99 years, (M:F) = 13:12 | Drug-free | ERP (N1), LORETA | Selective attention tasks and willed action paradigms | 19 | The mean reaction time was increased in the group SCZ. The average error rate was higher in SCZ patients. |
Wang et al. [68] | 2010 Mar | dfSCZ (first episode) = 19, CTL = 25 | S: 28.63 ± 12.33 years, (M:F) = 12:7; CTL: 32.88 ± 9.39 years, (M:F) = 12:13 | Drug-free | LORETA, ERP (P300) | Auditory oddball paradigm | 60 (FP1, F7, FP2, F3, FC3, FT7, T7, F8, F4, Fz, FCz, C3, TP7, FT8, FC4, Cz, CPz, CP3, P3, P7, T8, TP8, C4, P8, CP4, P4, Pz, Oz, O1, O2, FPz, AF3, AF7, F5, AF8, AF4, F1, FC5, F6, F2, FC1, C5, FC6, FC2, C2, C1, CP1, CP5, P5, PO7, PO8, C6, CP6, P6, CP2, PO4, P2, POz, P1, and PO3) | In individuals with SCZ, the button press accuracy was reduced and mean reaction time was increased. The decrease in P300 amplitude in patients occurred predominantly in the left hemisphere. The effect of LMR was significant only for the control group. |
Neuhaus et al. [79] | 2007 Oct | SCZ = 16, CTL = 16 | SCZ: 36.25 ± 8.4 years, (M:F) = 8:8; CTL: 36.63 ± 8.1 years, (M:F) = 8:8 | Atypical antipsychotics/selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors/flupentixol decanoate | LORETA, ERP (N200, P300) | Attention network test (ANT) | 32 (with the additional electrodes FC1, FC2, FC5, FC6, T1, T2, CP5, CP6, PO9, PO10, and Lo1) | In the conflict scenario, P300 latency increased at Cz and the P300 amplitude decreased at Pz. An anterior cingulate cortex deficit was detected. |
Sabeti et al. [80] | 2011 | SCZ = 20, CTL = 20 | No data | No data | LORETA | Oddball paradigm (P300) | No data | The most active area in the context of P300 in a group of normal individuals is the cingulate gyrus, one of the key elements of the working memory circuitry. The frontal lobe is the most active region in the SCZ group and the source of P300. |
Fallgatter et al. [81] | 2003 Sep 30 | SCZ = 31, CTL = 31 | SCZ: 30.3 ± 8.6 years, (M:F) = 22:9; CTL: 30.7 ± 3.5 years, (M:F) = 22:9 | Typical or atypical neuroleptics (clozapine, n = 6; olanzapine, n = 5; and risperidone, n = 1)/benzodiazepines/antidepressants/carbamazepine/valproate/lithium/biperiden/drug-free | LORETA | Continuous performance test (CPT) | 21 (Fp1, Fp2, F3, F4, F7, F8, T3, T4, C3, C4, T5, T6, P3, P4, O1, O2, Fpz, Fz, Cz, Pz, Oz) | Patients with SCZ had longer reaction times and also made more errors of omission. The mean NGA was significantly lower in patients with SCZ. In five patients who were not taking neuroleptic medication, NGA was significantly reduced compared to the control group, but did not differ from patients taking neuroleptics. Activity in the anterior cingulate fossa was significantly weaker in patients with SCZ. |
Wang et al. [82] | 2003 Mar | SCZ = 13, CTL = 20 | SCZ: 32.3 ± 10.6 years, (M:F) = 13:0; CTL: 34.6 ± 8.4 years, (M:F) = 20:0 | All medicated | LORETA, ERP (P300) | Oddball paradigm | 128 | A dramatic decrease in total P300 current strength was found in SCZ patients. The P300 current strength was higher on the right than on the left, in the inferior temporal region. The P300 current density in the patient group was consistently lower and mainly concentrated in the left hemisphere, especially in the left fronto-temporal cortex. |
Pae et al. [83] | 2003 Nov | SCZ = 20, CTL = 21 | SCZ: 29.2 years, (M:F) = 14:6; CTL: 26.5 years, (M:F) = 19:3 | Chlorpromazine | LORETA, ERP (P300) | Oddball paradigm | 128 | P300 amplitude was lower in the group SCZ than in CTL. The P300 sources in the group S were less focused in the superior parietal region and extended to the left prefrontal and left temporal regions, while CTL P300 sources were localized in the left superior parietal region. |
Park et al. [84] | 2002 Nov | SCZ = 14, CTL = 14 | SCZ: 26.5 years, (M:F) = 9:5; CTL: 24.6 years, (M:F) = 9:5 | Chlorpromazine | LORETA, ERP (MMN) | Eyes fixed on a single point, listening to the sounds | 128 | There were many MMN generators in the left hemisphere of control participants, including the inferior frontal gyrus, superior parietal lobe, STG, and IPL. The majority of MMN sources in patients with SCZ were found in the superior parietal lobe (BA7), with no consistent sources observed in the left IPL and left STG. |
Gornerova et al. [85] | 2023 Jan 18 | SCZ = 19 | SCZ: (M:F) = 11:8 | Chlorpromazine/clozapine/anticonvulsants/benzodiazepines | sLORETA, LF-rTMS | 10 days of monitoring | No data | Shows changes in EEG current density and lag-phase synchronization in beta- and alpha-2 bands during treatment of patients with auditory hallucinations with TMS. In patients, sLORETA revealed a decrease in alpha-2, beta-1 and -2 bands in the left hemisphere. |
Lee et al. [86] | 2006 Apr | SCZ1(with treatment refractory auditory hallucinations—AHs) = 25 SCZ2(without AH) = 23 | SCZ1: 39.2 years, (M:F) = 11:14; SCZ2: 38.5 years, (M:F) = 10:13 | Risperidone/olanzapine | LORETA, fast Fourier transformation (FFT) | Auditory stimuli | 18 (Fp1, F3, C3, P3, Fp2, F4, C4, P4, F7, T3, T5, O1, F8, T4, T6, O2, T1, T2) | Patients with auditory hallucinations (AHs) had more left hemisphere activity on Bins 1 and 2 in the anterior region. In patients without AH and controls, these activities were on average the same. Increased beta-1 activity in BA40 (left inferior parietal lobule) and beta-2 activity in BA10 (left medial frontal gyrus) was revealed in patients with AH. |
Itoh et al. [71] | 2011 Aug | SCZ (first episode) = 17, CTL = 17 | SCZ: 26.5 years, (M:F) = 11:6; CTL: 26.5 years, (M:F) = 11:6 | Drug-free | LORETA | No data | 19 (FP1, FP2, F3, F4, F7, F8, C3, C4, P3, P4, O1, O2, T3, T4, T5, T6, Fz, Cz, and Pz) | Individuals in group SCZ had higher delta-band activity. The total SANS score showed a negative correlation with LORETA values for delta-band activity in the right frontal gyrus and right parahippocampal gyrus. |
Lehmann et al. [87] | 2005 Feb 28 | SCZ (first episode) = 7, CTL = 27 | SCZ: 23.9 ± 5.4 years, (M:F) = 18:9; CTL: 24.4 ± 4.5 years, (M:F) = 18:9 | Drug-free | LORETA | Different paradigms | 19 | Using k-means, EEG data were categorized into four groups of microstates. Only in class B did the topography change; SCZ mainly showed more activity on the left side and in the anterior part of the body. The concatenation of microstates (syntax) was often disturbed in patients. |
Higuchi et al. [88] | 2008 Apr | SCZ = 16, CTL = 16 | SCZ:31.0 years, (M:F) = 5:11; CTL: 31.2 years, (M:F) = 5:11 | Haloperidol/risperidone/perospirone/chlorpromazine/risperidone + perospirone/drug-free | LORETA | Auditory oddball paradigm | 19 (FP1, FP2, F3, F4, F7, F8, C3, C4, P3, P4, O1, O2, T3, T4, T5, T6, Fz, Cz and Pz) | In areas including the left STG, left precentral gyrus, left middle frontal gyrus, and left precuneus, the P300 current source density was lower in group SCZ. After a 6-month course of olanzapine administration, a levodominant pattern of P300 current source density was observed, which was comparable to that in healthy subjects. |
Horacek et al. [89] | 2007 | SCZ = 9 | SCZ: 34.4 ± 9.1 years, (M:F) = 5:4 | Olanzapine + levomepromazine + quetiapine + amisulpride + ziprasidone/risperidone + amisulpride or clozapine + olanzapine + haloperidol/lithium carbonate + sulpiride + levomepromazine + carbamazepine + risperidone + ziprasidone + carbamazepine + quetiapine + fluphenazine decanoate | Low-frequency rTMS, LORETA, 18FDG PET | 10 days of TMS treatment | 19 | PANSS, HCS, AHRS showed statistically significant improvement. Transcranial magnetic stimulation increased brain metabolism in the frontal lobes and contralateral cortex while decreasing it in the left superior temporal gyrus and adjacent areas. |
Sumiyoshi et al. [90] | 2006 Sep 30 | SCZ = 5, CTL = 5 | SCZ: 40.2 ± 8.1 years, (M:F) = 4:1; CTL: 40.2 ± 8.1 years, (M:F) = 4:1 | Olanzapine | LORETA, ERP (P300) | Oddball paradigm | 19 (FP1, FP2, F3, F4, F7, F8, C3, C4, P3, P4, O1, O2, T3, T4, T5, T6, Fz, Cz, and Pz) | During olanzapine administration, scores on the AVLT, BPRS, and GAF questionnaires improved significantly. After patients switched to olanzapine, the P300 amplitude increased. |
Saletu et al. [91] | 2005 Apr | DS = 60, CTL = 20 | DS: 51.1 ± 3.13 years, (M:F) = 0:60; CTL: 23–34 years, (M:F) = 10:10 | Placebo, citalopram, imipramine | LORETA | Vigilance-controlled EEG (V-EEG) and a 4 min resting EEG (R-EEG) | 19 | In patients with depression, a decrease in the power of the theta and alpha-1 ranges and a decrease in the delta range in the BA13 and BA25 regions were shown. After citalopram treatment, an increase was observed in the beta-3, beta-2, beta-1, and alpha-2 ranges, especially on the right. |
Tislerova et al. [92] | 2008 | SCZ = 41 (antipsychotic naive = 11, clozapine = 8, olanzapine = 10, risperidone = 12), CTL = 20 | SCZ: 26.0 years, (M:F) = 22:19; CTL: 26.0 years, (M:F) = 10:10 | Benzodiazepines/antidepressants/anticholinergics/mood stabilizers/drug-free | LORETA | Acoustic stimulation | 19 (Fp1, Fp2, F7, F3, Fz, F4, F8, T3, C3, Cz, C4, T4, T5, P3, Pz, P4, T6, O1 and O2) | Patients receiving clozapine showed increased delta and theta frequencies in the anterior cingulate and medial frontal cortex and decreased alpha-1 and beta-2 frequencies in occipital regions. And patients taking olanzapine showed increased theta frequencies in the anterior cingulate, decreased alpha-1, beta-2 and beta-3 frequencies in the occipital cortex and posterior limbic structures, and decreased beta-3 frequencies in the frontotemporal cortex and anterior cingulate. |
Molina et al. [72] | 2019 Jun | SCZ = 38 (first episodes = 17, stable chronic = 21), CTL = 53 | SCZ: 32.77 years, (M:F) = 22:16; CTL: 31.43 years, (M:F) = 29:24 | Atypical antipsychotics/serotonin reuptake inhibitors/benzodiazepines | sLORETA, MRI (T1) | Oddball 3-stimulus paradigm | 33 (Fp1, Fp2, F7, F3, Fz, F4, F8, FC5, FC1, FCz, FC2, FC6, T7, C3, Cz, C4, T8, TP9, CP5, CP1, CP2, CP6, TP10, P7, P3, Pz, P4, P8, PO9, PO10, O1, Oz, O2) | In frontal and parietal regions, control participants showed greater differences in P3b sources than patients. The activation of P3b sources was reduced in S patients in the medial frontal and anterior cingulate gyrus (BA9, BA32, BA33), lateral prefrontal (BA9, 10, 11), and orbital frontal gyrus (BA11, BA25). |
González-Hernández et al. [93] | 2014 Oct | SCZ = 48, CTL = 55 | SCZ: 30.66 ± 9.59 years, (M:F) = 18:31; CTL: 32.20 ± 9.29 years, (M:F) = 25:30 | All medicated | srVEP (C1, N1, P1), LORETA, Z-transformation | 58 monopolar | Disturbances in the thalamus, posterior cingulate, precuneus, superior parietal, and medial occipitotemporal regions were related to symptom intensity. Positive sensations were significantly associated with sensory processing deficits (P1), whereas negative symptoms were significantly associated with perceptual processing difficulties (N1). | |
Kleinlogel et al. [69] | 2007 Dec | SCZ (first episode) = 18, CTL = 18 | SCZ:25.0 ± 4.9 years, (M:F) = 15:3; CTL: 24.6 ± 4.3 years, (M:F) = 15:3 | Haloperidol/risperidone/olanzapine/quetiapine/quetiapine + haloperidol/solianol + haloperidol/drug-free | LORETA, independent component analysis (ICA), ERP (P300) | Visual task | 21 | Patients had an increased level of NGA compared to healthy controls. SCZ patients showed a decreased amplitude of P300 response to both Go- and NoGo stimuli and an increased P300 latency to NoGo stimuli. |
Luckhaus et al. [94] | 2013 | SCZ = 18, BPE = 1 | 35.3 ± 8.2 years, (M:F) = 19:0 | Not stated | sLORETA, EOG, independent component analysis (ICA), ERP (P100, N170, N250) | CPT paradigm | 28 | Training of Affect Recognition (TAR) was used to detect decreased activity in the parieto-temporo-occipital regions of the left hemisphere at 172 milliseconds and increased activation in the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and anterior cingulate at 250 milliseconds. |
Lehmann et al. [95] | 2014 Aug 20 | SCZ (first episode) = 30 | (M:F) = 18:12 | Drug-free | eLORETA, conjunction analysis, principal functional connectivity | Resting with closed eyes | Bern and Berlin 19 electrodes (Fp1/2, F7/8, F3/4, Fz, C3/4, Cz, T3/T4, T5/6, P3/4, Pz, O1/2); 21 electrodes Fpz and Oz in addition) in Berlin | A decrease in overall brain activity in the cortex, especially in the anterior cingulate and temporal lobes, has been demonstrated in the group SCZ. There is evidence of varied and frequency-dependent increases in brain activity in specific areas in individuals with schizotypal personality disorder and depression. |
Mientus et al. [96] | 2002 Nov 30 | SCZ = 19, Sh = 19, D = 30, CTL = 20 | SCZ: 35.58 ± 10.69 years, (M:F) = 10:9; CTL: 36.15 ± 10.09 years, (M:F) = 10:10 | Drug-free | LORETA | No data | 19 | In SCZ, cortical hypoactivation is noted in the anterior cingulate and temporal lobes. Schizotypal personalities and depressed patients show signs of a complex, frequency-dependent pattern of hyperactivation in parietal areas. |
Method of Treatment of the Patient | Number of Studies | Changes in Electrical Activity |
---|---|---|
Olanzapine | 5 | (1) Enhancement in P300 current (2) Rise in P300 amplitudes (3) Rise in theta frequencies in the anterior cingulum (4) Decline in the occurrence of alpha-1, beta-2, and beta-3 waves in the occipital brain and posterior limbic areas (5) Decrease in the presence of beta-3 frequencies in the frontotemporal cortex and anterior cingulum (6) Reduced NGA* |
Clozapine | 3 | (1) Rise in delta and theta frequencies in the anterior cingulate and medial frontal cortex (2) Along with a decline in alpha-1 and beta-2 frequencies in the occipital regions (3) Reduced NGA* |
rTMS | 1 | (1) Reduced NGA* OR (2) No significant changes were found between non-antipsychotic users and risperidone users |
Risperidone | 4 | There is a lack of data regarding influence |
Levomepromazine | 1 | There is a lack of data regarding influence |
Quetiapine | 1 | There is a lack of data regarding influence |
Amisulpride | 1 | There is a lack of data regarding influence |
Ziprasidone | 1 | There is a lack of data regarding influence |
Haloperidol | 2 | There is a lack of data regarding influence |
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Zeltser, A.; Ochneva, A.; Riabinina, D.; Zakurazhnaya, V.; Tsurina, A.; Golubeva, E.; Berdalin, A.; Andreyuk, D.; Leonteva, E.; Kostyuk, G.; et al. EEG Techniques with Brain Activity Localization, Specifically LORETA, and Its Applicability in Monitoring Schizophrenia. J. Clin. Med. 2024, 13, 5108. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm13175108
Zeltser A, Ochneva A, Riabinina D, Zakurazhnaya V, Tsurina A, Golubeva E, Berdalin A, Andreyuk D, Leonteva E, Kostyuk G, et al. EEG Techniques with Brain Activity Localization, Specifically LORETA, and Its Applicability in Monitoring Schizophrenia. Journal of Clinical Medicine. 2024; 13(17):5108. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm13175108
Chicago/Turabian StyleZeltser, Angelina, Aleksandra Ochneva, Daria Riabinina, Valeria Zakurazhnaya, Anna Tsurina, Elizaveta Golubeva, Alexander Berdalin, Denis Andreyuk, Elena Leonteva, Georgy Kostyuk, and et al. 2024. "EEG Techniques with Brain Activity Localization, Specifically LORETA, and Its Applicability in Monitoring Schizophrenia" Journal of Clinical Medicine 13, no. 17: 5108. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm13175108