1. Introduction
The dairy sector, which is one of the major contributors to the agricultural economy in the European Union (EU), was strongly affected for 30 years by milk production quotas. This iconic instrument of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) was implemented in 1984 in the face of milk overproduction resulting from milk price support. The milk quota regime restricted the amount of milk to be produced by each member state and, consequently, by individual dairy farms based on reference volumes from 1983, with the aim of stabilizing milk prices and producer incomes and reducing the European budget for market support [
1]. Since its introduction, the milk quota has become a scarce factor that allows for profitable dairy producer prices and maintaining dairy production for less competitive regions and farmers [
2]. This instrument was designed to deal with internal problems and did not have any impact on international trade [
3].
The non-tradable quota has been criticised not just for its negative welfare effect due to price distortion but also because it leads to a lower average productivity level [
4]. Therefore, the deregulation of the milk quota allocation would lead to increasing dairy farm efficiency over time [
5]; however, Bouamra-Mechemache et al. [
6] pointed out that this would be possible only with substantial liberalization of trade.
The CAP development resulting from pressure from the World Trade Organisation to liberalize the dairy market, as well as from the maintenance of inefficient dairy producers, led to the Luxembourg reform of 2003, which introduced gradual increases in milk quotas until 2013 [
1,
7]. The liberalization of the dairy market was completed by the revision of the 2003 reform framework (“Health Check”) in 2008, which endorsed the abolition of milk quotas by April 2015 after a “soft landing”, i.e., a 1% annual increase in milk quotas [
8].
The gradual liberalization of the dairy sector, along with the price volatility during the first two decades of the 21st century, changed the whole dairy sector significantly. A government response has therefore been expected in many countries since the abolition of milk quotas. Thorsøe et al. [
9] found differences in government responses, with regard to value chain organization, production factors and market orientation, to address the problem of price volatility at the national level. Fotis and Polemis [
10] argue that the government (Greek) must provide incentives to attract more milk producers to increase the number of competitors within the industry.
The European dairy sector is quite heterogeneous regarding size and industrial structure and very often is located in disadvantaged regions [
11]. The profitability and income levels of specialized dairy farms differ significantly, not just between member states but also within them. Poczta et al. [
12] identified five types of dairy farms with regard to their size, production scale, manufacturing intensity, and profitability. They consider large- and medium-size farms with intensive production to be the most important for European milk production. The European Commission [
13] explains the differences in income level of these farms using productivity, farm size, herd size, and milk production levels. This explanation omits the impact of technological changes that influence the productivity and profitability of the farms. As stated by Philippidis and Waschik [
11], technological change is connected with structural change and has an effect on both the agricultural milk production sector and the dairy processing sector, in perfect competition as well as imperfect competition. Sobczyński et al. [
14] consider the use of advanced technology to be a key factor in achieving a higher yield per cow in a chosen region of Poland, and, according to Žáková Kroupová et al. [
15], it influences the total factor productivity change.
According to Eurostat [
16], the development of the European dairy sector can be characterized by a considerable decrease in the number of agricultural holdings and an increase in the dairy sector, as well as a decrease in dairy cows under the period of the quota regime.
Figure 1 illustrates the decreasing number of dairy cows in the European Union. It is evident that during the last two decades, the number of dairy cows has been gradually decreasing. This situation does not have an effect on the production of raw milk, which has witnessed the opposite trend.
Within this timeframe, the EU-10 member states, in particular, showed a reduction of 81% in the number of farms with dairy cows and of 38% in the number of dairy cows. However, a decrease can be observed in the whole EU-28. Despite this considerable decrease in the dairy cow herd, the level of milk production was quite stable in the first two decades and has increased in recent decades. The same patterns can be observed in
Figure 2 and
Figure 3 for countries selected for our empirical analysis. These figures suggest that the abolition of milk quotas might have a positive effect on milk yield. However, milk yield is only a partial measure of productivity and does not consider other production factors, as is the case for total factor productivity.
Philippidis and Waschik [
11] expect another expansion of milk production under the quota abolition, either on perfectly competitive models or imperfect competition model variants, especially in Belgium and the Netherlands. Klootwijk et al. [
17] add that quota abolition led to an increase in the number of cows, and in farm intensity in terms of milk per hectare, by about 4% on Dutch farms. Oudendag et al. [
18] expect a small increase in large dairy farms in the Netherlands. The limiting factor for future increases is the phosphate quota, which is comparable to the dairy quota [
4,
17,
19].
The removal of milk quotas significantly changed the dairy business environment. Dairy farmers have started to face considerable milk price volatility, which affects their production and investment decisions [
1,
20,
21,
22]. New business strategies have also changed the dairy sector structure (i.e., the number of farms and farm size distribution) [
23]. The strategy of expanding and benefiting from economies of scale, predicted by Groeneveld et al. [
20] and proved by Klopčič et al. [
22], moved the structure towards large dairy farms with greater economic efficiencies and investment possibilities in animals and also brought technological improvements [
20,
23]. These changes in context also modified the competitiveness of dairy farms and of the dairy production of member states as a whole.
Market deregulation is generally viewed as an important external driver of productivity growth [
24]. Well-functioning free markets ensure that firms that are lagging behind their competitors lose market share or are even forced to cease their market participation, freeing the resources bound by their production activity and making them available for production by more productive firms. This process contributes to more efficient production at the sector level. Market regulation, however, hinders this resource reallocation by keeping firms with low efficiency and productivity in the market [
25]. This suspicion can also be applied to the case of the quota system, which affects the efficiency of firms and markets by reducing the output of farms. Technological and structural changes would be constrained, especially under a fixed-quota system, where a trading quota is not permitted [
26].
Specifically, in the European dairy sector, Huettel and Jongeneel [
27] revealed that the exit mobility of Dutch and German dairy farms decreased under the quota regime, indicating that possibly less efficient farms were kept in the dairy sector. As Colman [
28] and Areal et al. [
26] proved, this negative effect is reduced under a more flexible quota system. The tradability of quotas allows efficient firms to expand their business at the expense of inefficient firms. Gillespie et al. [
29] compared Irish dairy productivity before and after milk quota restrictions using stochastic frontier analysis (SFA) on 1979–2012 data and found that milk quotas negatively affected total factor productivity. Zeng et al. [
30] also evaluated the impact of eliminating EU milk quotas on the total factor productivity of Irish dairy farms. Based on 2007–2015 data, they confirmed the results of Gillespie et al. [
29] and, furthermore, highlighted the heterogeneous responses of dairy farmers depending on specialization, represented by the ratio of revenue from dairy production to total farm revenue. Farmers with a relatively high revenue ratio in dairy production are thought to experience a more positive impact from milk quota elimination. Interestingly, large dairy farms that have an advantage in productivity do not benefit more from milk quota deregulation, according to the results of Zeng et al. [
30]. Frick and Sauer [
25] estimated the impacts of market deregulation on German dairy sector productivity during the phase-out of the milk quota based on Bavarian farm data from 2000–2014, applying linear programming and stochastic frontier approaches. According to their results, the reallocation of resources towards more productive farms increased gradually during the phase-out of the EU milk quota due to its direct as well as indirect effects. Breustedt et al. [
31] also examined the effect of abolishing milk quotas on a sample of Bavarian dairy farms. Utilizing data for the financial year 2004/2005 and data envelopment analysis, they predicted that organic dairy farms would lose their competitive advantage with the deregulation of the EU’s milk market regime in 2015. Finally, Areal et al. [
26], applying a Bayesian stochastic frontier analysis on English and Welsh farm data from 2000 to 2005 to investigate the relationship between milk quotas and technical efficiency, supported the idea that abolishing the milk quota leads to a more competitive market for milk, which forces the least-efficient farms to leave milk production. The abolition of a milk quota brought a high expectation for farmers [
32]. Its elimination has had an effect on the whole dairy sector [
33,
34].
Even before the cancelation dairy quota abolishment had attracted the attention of many studies, many of them were focused just on the situations in one or two countries. It can be said that some authors predicted an increase in milk supply together with decreasing prices for producers [
18,
35] as well as increasing competitiveness both within states [
14] and globally [
36]. The dairy sector was expected to be more dynamic than before the quota elimination [
37], with a strong increase in intensity for the largest farms [
1,
20] with ultimately a slightly positive welfare effect [
38].
The majority of previous studies predicted the possible impacts of quota deregulation using data prior to the policy implementation. This study seeks to fill the gap in the literature by providing a deep insight into the sources of competitiveness of milk producers before and after the abolition of milk quotas. The aim of this study is to explore how dairy farms in selected EU member states have been adapting to the new circumstances by employing new advances in productivity and efficiency analysis.
In particular, this study provides a robust estimate of the stochastic frontier models in the form of input distance function by employing the method which controls for the potential endogeneity of netputs in the four-step estimation procedure. The main contribution of this study is the empirical application of the recently developed approaches to robust efficiency and productivity analysis of milk producers in selected countries. Moreover, it complements the literature by the prediction of the impacts of milk quotas abolition using data prior and after the market deregulation. The study finds the support for the hypothesis of the positive effects of milk quotas abolition on productivity growth through the improvements in scale efficiency, i.e., the scale of operations.
The rest of the paper is organized as follows: The next section provides an overview of our empirical model, introduces data, and describes the empirical strategy. Then, the results and discussion are presented. Our conclusions are contained in the last section of the paper.
4. Conclusions
This study provides the insights into the sources of competitiveness of milk producers before and after the abolition of milk quotas. We explored dairy farms in selected EU member states and focused on the productivity dynamics. Our aim was to study the effects of the abolishing of milk quotas. The investigation was based on the stochastic frontier analysis. We employed the input distance function in the specification of the generalized true random effect model. Moreover, to provide a robust estimate of this model, we employed the method which controls for the potential endogeneity of netputs in the four-step estimation procedure. The main contribution of this paper is the empirical application of the recently developed approaches to robust efficiency and productivity analysis of milk producers. Furthermore, we attempt to complement the literature that predicted the possible impacts of quota deregulation using data prior to the policy implementation by new findings using the data that includes the years after the abolishing of milk quotas. In particular, the deregulation of the milk quota allocation was expected to increase dairy farm efficiency and productivity over time [
5].
Our results revealed considerable heterogeneity in production structure and production technology. Moreover, the average milk producer is characterized by increasing returns to scale in all analysed countries. However, the degree of diseconomies of scale differs among the countries substantially. These findings are in line with Čechura et al. [
46] and Žáková Kroupová et al. [
15]. The technological change was found to be negative in most of the countries. Moreover, we rejected the Hick’s neutral technological change. The estimated biased technological change is country specific, and we cannot observe any common patterns. The exception is capital input. We estimated a capital-using biased technological change in the majority of analysed countries. These results find again the support in Čechura et al. [
46] and are in line with the observations of Klopčič et al. [
22].
Similar to the results of Bokusheva and Čechura [
41], we found high overall technical efficiency in all analysed countries except for the UK. Since the density of the efficiency estimate is narrow and skewed to higher values in the majority of countries, we may conclude that most producers are operating near the production frontier. The decomposition of overall technical efficiency into transient and persistent parts reveals that the persistent technical efficiency shows lower mean values as compared to transient technical efficiency. However, the room for improvement is small, up to 10% in the majority of cases. With respect to the distribution, which is also narrow and skewed to higher values, we may conclude that we cannot observe considerable systematic failures in the efficiency of input use in most of the analysed countries.
Furthermore, the results indicate an increasing trend for TFP in most countries, with different intensity and variability among the countries. The TFP decomposition shows two main sources of TFP dynamics. Whereas the technological change component was predominantly negative, the scale component was found as the main source of TFP growth. That is, the farms adjusted their scale of operations to increase scale efficiency, i.e., to exploit economies of scale. These results are fully in line with the expectation that milk quota abolishment leads to farm size adjustments in the direction of optimal size. That is, we found the support for the hypothesis of positive effects of the abolition of milk quotas on productivity that were predicted and/or observed by other studies, e.g., [
11,
27,
29].
The future research will focus on the effects of the market deregulation or the abolition of milk quotas, respectively, on the group of specialized milk producers. In particular, we aim to investigate whether the observed scale effects are stronger for specialized milk producers and different size groups and what are the investments patterns with respect to the expected positive technological change.