A Review on Hydroponics and the Technologies Associated for Medium- and Small-Scale Operations
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- Part I. General Aspects of Hydroponics.
2. History and Contributions from Plant Physiology
3. Hydroponic Cultivation Techniques
3.1. Floating Root System or Deep Water Culture (DWC)
3.2. Drip Irrigation
3.3. Aeroponics
3.4. Nutrient Film Technique
3.5. Ebb and Flow
3.6. Aquaponics
4. Advantages and Disadvantages
4.1. Advantages
- Ubiquity and space efficiency. Hydroponics makes it possible to grow food everywhere a controlled environment can be implemented. Indeed, even deep space exploration considers hydroponics as the main source of food for spaceship crews. Furthermore, depending on the type of plant, it is possible to devise vertical arrangements for increased produce output.
- Quantity and quality assurance. In traditional agriculture, crop rotation is necessary to preserve soil fertility; however, hydroponic crops can be repeated as many times as required, increasing the yield per cycle per crop. Also, since nourishment is administered accordingly with the physiological requirements of the plant, produce quality is assured. However, one must bear in mind that in highly automated greenhouses small changes in the operation conditions cause quick crop responses.
- Sustainability. Since the produce is not in contact with the soil and the nourishing solution is recycled, factors like water evaporation, seepage, or pollution are minimized and rinsing water is not needed. Additionally, by having a controlled environment, the optimal growth conditions and protection against plant plagues and diseases is assured, eliminating the need for chemicals and pesticides and saving on important natural resources like soil and water.
- Economics. In some routinary steps, operations in hydroponics are simpler than those required in traditional agriculture. In this sense, conventional practices require many effort-laden preparations before sowing, including the cost of heavy machinery and specialized equipment, which eventually may come through a rental of the same. In other aspects, hydroponics may require more dedication, commonly needing a set of sensors and devices for a precise follow-up of the crop condition.
4.2. Disadvantages
- High initial cost. The initial investment in a hydroponic system is relatively high due to the cost of required raw materials and equipment for the operation.
- Highly trained labor. Large-scale hydroponic operations require personnel with deep knowledge of agriculture, plant physiology, chemistry, and sophisticated control and information systems.
- Environmental pollution. If the residual nutrient solution is not properly disposed of, the discharged solution, enriched with phosphorus and nitrates, can generate excessive growth of algae and other microorganisms in bodies of water and effluents, creating serious environmental problems.
5. Substrates
- Porosity. This property influences nutrient availability for the plant to perform metabolic processes like breathing, transpiration, and photosynthesis.
- Capillarity. Through capillarity, the substrate absorbs nutrients and distributes them to the plant’s root.
- Oxygenation. The structure of the substrate must allow the intake of oxygen by the roots while these are in contact with the nutrient solution.
- Chemically inert. The substrate must consist of materials unable to react with the chemicals in the nutrient solution to avoid any alteration in its composition.
- Biologically inert. Because the nutrient solution circulates among a high root density of several plants, diseases can spread rapidly from one to another if corrective actions are not applied immediately. Therefore, the substrate must not favor any biological activity since micro-organisms may have a detrimental effect on crops, like diseases, malnutrition, and other consequences.
Sustainability Criteria for Choosing Substrates
6. Ideal Crops for Hydroponics
7. Nutrient Solution
7.1. pH in Hydroponics Nutrient Solutions
7.2. Electrical Conductivity
8. Sterilization of Nutrient Solutions
Impact of Residual Nutrient Solutions on the Environment
- Part II. Hydroponics and Technology.
9. Agriculture 4.0
10. Suitable Technology for Small and Medium-Scale Food Production Using Hydroponic
- Sensing. The capacity of a system for event detection, data acquisition, and accurate measurement of changes in the physical parameters of the environment.
- Smart. The capacity of a system to incorporate control and actuation functions that, after the interpretation of input data, supports the decision-making process, following predictive or adaptive logics. Furthermore, the term smart adduces to the ability of several interconnected systems to operate simultaneously.
- Sustainable. This concept applies to the development of technology with a combined social, economic, and environmental perspective.
11. Small and Medium-Scale Hydroponic Production Systems: How to Select the Appropriate Level of Technology?
12. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Material | Advantages | Disadvantages | Source |
---|---|---|---|
Sand | Economically viable, good porosity features, and provides good plant support | High density (around of 1500 kg/m3), low retention of water, susceptible to salt accumulation | [22] |
Perlite | Low density (around of 90 kg/m3), biologically inert, neutral pH, highly available | Expensive, low water retention capacity | [23] |
Vermiculite | Low density (around 80 kg/m3), high nutrient holding ability, good water holding ability | Expensive, energy consuming product | [15] |
Rockwool | Low density (around 80 kg/m3), ease of handling, totally inert, sterile from pathogens, eases nutrition management in plants | Negative impacts on human health when is reused | [24,25] |
Coconut coir | Low density (around 60 kg/m3), good air content and water holding capacity, pH in ranges of 5–8 | High salt level content, energy consumption during transport | [26] |
Peat/Peat moss | Inert, high water storage capacity, prevents leaching of nutrients | Negative environmental impacts such as loss of soil organic carbon, relatively expensive | [24] |
Pumice | Cheap and long-lasting usage, chemically inert, low density | Particle size and hydraulic properties affect the growth and yield of crops | [27] |
Type | Common Name | Scientific Name | Cultivation Technique |
---|---|---|---|
Bulb Vegetables | Garlic | Allium sativum | Drip irrigation |
Onion | Allium cepa | NFT, Drip irrigation | |
Pore | Allium porrum | NFT, Drip irrigation | |
Leafy Vegetables | Lettuce | Lactuca sativa | NFT, DWC |
Cabbage | Brassica oleracea var. capitata | NFT, DWC | |
Brussels sprouts | Brassica oleracea var. gemmifera | NFT, DWC | |
Mustard | Brassica nigra | NFT, DWC | |
Spinach | Spinacea oleracea | NFT, DWC | |
Chard | Beta vulgaris var. cicla | NFT, DWC | |
Water cress | Nasturtium officinale | NFT, DWC | |
Celery | Apium graveolens | NFT, DWC | |
Parsley | Petroselinum crispum | NFT, DWC | |
Coriander | Coriandrum sativum | NFT, DWC, drip irrigation | |
Purslane | Portulaca oleracea | NFT, DWC | |
Root Vegetables | Beetroot | Beta vulgaris | Drip irrigation, aeroponics |
Jicama | Pachyrrhizus erosus | Drip irrigation | |
Turnip | Brassica rapa | NFT | |
Radish | Raphanus sativus | Drip irrigation, aeroponics | |
Yucca | Manihot esculenta | NFT, Drip irrigation | |
Carrot | Daucus carota | Drip irrigation, aeroponics | |
Tuber Vegetables | Sweet potato | Ipomoea batatas | Drip irrigation |
Potato | Solanum tuberosum | Drip irrigation | |
Stem Vegetables | Swede | Brassica oleracea var. gongyloides | Drip irrigation |
Asparagus | Asparagus officinalis | NFT, DWC | |
Inflorescent Vegetables | Artichoke | Cynara scolymus | Drip irrigation |
Broccoli | Brassica oleracea var. Italica | Drip irrigation, NFT | |
Cauliflower | Brassica oleracea var. botrytis | Drip irrigation, NFT | |
Huauzontle | Chenopodium sp. | NFT, DWC | |
Fruit Vegetables | Zucchini | Cucurbita pepo | Drip irrigation, NFT |
Cucumber | Cucumis sativus | Drip irrigation, NFT | |
Cantaloupe | Cucumis melo | Drip irrigation, NFT | |
Watermelon | Citrullus vulgaris | Drip irrigation | |
Green bean | Phaseolus vulgaris | Drip irrigation | |
Squash | Sechium edule | Drip irrigation | |
Chile | Capsicum annuum | Drip irrigation | |
Eggplant | Solanum melongena | Drip irrigation | |
Tomato | Solanum licopersicum | Drip irrigation, NFT | |
Tomato | Physalis ixocarpa | Drip irrigation, NFT | |
Pulse Vegetables | Pea | Pisum sativum | Drip irrigation |
Bean | Vicia faba | Drip irrigation | |
Sweet Corn | Zea mays | Drip irrigation |
Nutrient | Symbol | Forms Absorbed |
---|---|---|
Nitrogen | N | |
Phosphorus | P | |
Potassium | K | |
Calcium | Ca | |
Magnesium | Mg | |
Sulfur | S | |
Iron | Fe | |
Manganese | Mn | |
Zinc | Zn | |
Copper | Cu | |
Molybdenum | Mo | |
Boron | B |
Crops | pH | EC (mS/cm) |
---|---|---|
Asparagus | 6–6.8 | 1.4–1.8 |
African Violet | 6–7 | 1.2–1.5 |
Basil | 5.5–6 | 1–1.6 |
Bean | 6 | 2–4 |
Banana | 5.5–6.5 | 1.8–2.2 |
Broccoli | 6–6.8 | 2.8–3.5 |
Cabbage | 6.5–7 | 2.5–3 |
Celery | 6.5 | 1.8–2.4 |
Carnation | 6 | 2–3.5 |
Courgettes | 6 | 1.8–2.4 |
Cucumber | 5–5.5 | 1.7–2 |
Eggplant | 6 | 2.5–3.5 |
Ficus | 5.5–6 | 1.6–2.4 |
Leek | 6.5–7 | 1.4–1.8 |
Lettuce | 6–7 | 1.2–1.8 |
Marrow | 6 | 1.8–2.4 |
Okra | 6.5 | 2–2.4 |
Pak Choi | 7 | 1.5–2 |
Peppers | 5.5–6 | 0.8–1.8 |
Parsley | 6–6.5 | 1.8–2.2 |
Rhubarb | 5.5–6 | 1.6–2 |
Rose | 5.5–6 | 1.5–2.5 |
Spinach | 6–7 | 1.8–2.3 |
Strawberry | 6 | 1.8–2.2 |
Sage | 5.5–6.5 | 1–1.6 |
Tomato | 6–6.5 | 2–4 |
Method | Advantages | Disadvantages |
---|---|---|
Filtration | ||
-Sand Filters | Low cost | High space requirements |
Easy to operate | Effectiveness varies with pathogen | |
Frequent clogging and seeping | ||
-Membrane | Highly effective | High initial investment |
Expensive maintenance | ||
Heat treatment | ||
-Pasteurization | Highly effective | High capital costs |
Precipitates are not generated | High maintenance costs | |
Radiation | ||
-UV Radiation | High efficiency (without turbidity) | Low efficiency in the presence of turbidity |
Low space requirement | Precipitation of Mn and Fe | |
Relatively expensive equipment | ||
Chemical treatment | ||
-Ozone | Highly effective | High capital costs |
High maintenance costs | ||
Efficiency drops with high organic matter | ||
-Hydrogen peroxide | Useful for cleaning irrigation systems | Interaction with some micronutrients |
Harmful for plant roots when the dose is greater than 0.05% | ||
-Chlorine | Low cost technique | Its effectiveness depends on many factors: temperature, pH, organic load, ammonium content, etc. |
Toxic residues can be generated due to the interaction with organic and inorganic elements of the nutrient solution |
ID | Year | Contribution/Author | I | DU | IoT | S | SM |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 2021 | Design and implementation of an intelligent, low-cost IoT-based control and monitoring system for hydroponics greenhouses [55] | X | X | X | ||
2 | 2021 | IoT-based self-adaptive hydroponics care system that controls the hydroponic cultivation environment [56] | X | X | X | ||
3 | 2019 | Development of a methodology for the implementation of sustainable technology [54] | X | X | X | X | |
4 | 2019 | Development of an IoT application for task management in a hydroponic greenhouse [57]. | X | X | X | ||
5 | 2018 | Integrated Internet of Things (IoT)-based system for monitoring and managing a hydroponic crop [58]. | X | X | X | X | |
6 | 2018 | Development of an automated system for nutrient dosing, pH regulation, conductivity, light intensity, and temperature and humidity monitoring using an ARM Cortex-M4 microcontroller [59]. | X | X | |||
7 | 2018 | Development of a microelectronic system for mixing nutrient solutions in hydroponic crops using fuzzy logic [60]. | X | X | |||
8 | 2018 | Modeling of a prototype greenhouse for the control of temperature, humidity, luminosity and nutrient management [61]. | X | X | |||
9 | 2018 | Conductivity adjustment of the nutrient solution in an NFT type hydroponic system using fuzzy logic [62]. | X | X | |||
10 | 2018 | Development of an intelligent hydroponic system based on IoT using deep neural networks in a Raspberry Pi3 and Tensor Flow [63]. | X | X | X | X | |
11 | 2018 | Development of a system of monitoring and control of variables for hydroponic crops based on the Internet of Things [64]. | X | X | X | ||
12 | 2018 | Development of a nutrient flow control tool in a hydroponic system using Arduino, with remote monitoring and operation using a smartphone [65]. | X | X | X | ||
13 | 2018 | Development of an automated data acquisition system for monitoring and control of a hydroponic crop implemented in the Arduino platform [66]. | X | X | |||
14 | 2017 | Low cost control system for hydroponic greenhouses using an AVR microcontroller and an interface developed in LabView [67]. | X | X | |||
15 | 2017 | Development of an intelligent hydroponic system using exact inference through a Bayes-type neural network [68]. | X | X | |||
16 | 2017 | Design and implementation of an automatic system for the dosage of nutrients in an NFT type hydroponic system using Arduino [69]. | X | X | |||
17 | 2017 | Conductivity and pH adjustment of the nutrient solution used in hydroponic cultures using a linear regression model programmed in a microcontroller [70]. | X | X | |||
18 | 2017 | Design of an embedded system for the dosage of nutrients in a hydroponic system using artificial intelligence [71]. | X | X | |||
19 | 2017 | Development of a remote control system based on IoT for the management of a hydroponic system [72]. | X | X |
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Velazquez-Gonzalez, R.S.; Garcia-Garcia, A.L.; Ventura-Zapata, E.; Barceinas-Sanchez, J.D.O.; Sosa-Savedra, J.C. A Review on Hydroponics and the Technologies Associated for Medium- and Small-Scale Operations. Agriculture 2022, 12, 646. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture12050646
Velazquez-Gonzalez RS, Garcia-Garcia AL, Ventura-Zapata E, Barceinas-Sanchez JDO, Sosa-Savedra JC. A Review on Hydroponics and the Technologies Associated for Medium- and Small-Scale Operations. Agriculture. 2022; 12(5):646. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture12050646
Chicago/Turabian StyleVelazquez-Gonzalez, Roberto S., Adrian L. Garcia-Garcia, Elsa Ventura-Zapata, Jose Dolores Oscar Barceinas-Sanchez, and Julio C. Sosa-Savedra. 2022. "A Review on Hydroponics and the Technologies Associated for Medium- and Small-Scale Operations" Agriculture 12, no. 5: 646. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture12050646