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Article

Taif’s Rose (Rosa damascena Mill var. trigentipetala) Wastes Are a Potential Candidate for Heavy Metals Remediation from Agricultural Soil

by
Tarek M. Galal
1,2,
Ali Majrashi
1,2,
Hatim M. Al-Yasi
1,2,
Emad A. Farahat
3,*,
Ebrahem M. Eid
4,5 and
Esmat F. Ali
1,2,*
1
Department of Biology, College of Sciences, Taif University, P.O. Box 11099, Taif 21944, Saudi Arabia
2
High Altitude Research Center, Taif University, P.O. Box 11099, Taif 21944, Saudi Arabia
3
Botany and Microbiology Department, Faculty of Science, Helwan University, Cairo 11790, Egypt
4
Botany Department, Faculty of Science, Kafrelsheikh University, Kafr El-Sheikh 33516, Egypt
5
Biology Department, College of Science, King Khalid University, P.O. Box 9004, Abha 61321, Saudi Arabia
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Agriculture 2022, 12(9), 1319; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture12091319
Submission received: 31 July 2022 / Revised: 23 August 2022 / Accepted: 24 August 2022 / Published: 26 August 2022
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Utilization of Humic Substances and Organic Waste in Green Agriculture)
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Abstract

:
The current study examines the bioaccumulation potential of Taif rose shrubs by analyzing the shrubs’ wastes. f. At Al-Shafa Highland, four farms with plants of different ages were chosen to collect soil samples and vegetative waste (leaves and stems) for morphological and chemical analysis. The tallest stem and largest crown diameter (184.2 and 243.5 cm, respectively) were found in the oldest (20-year-old) shrubs, which also produced the highest biomass of pruning wastes of stems and leaves (3.9 and 1.3 t/ha, respectively). The 10-year-old shrubs gathered the highest concentration of Co and Pb (1.74 and 7.34 mg kg−1) in the stem and the highest Fe, Mn, and Ni (18.55, 18.60, and 9.05 mg kg−1) in the leaves, while the youngest plants (4 years) accumulated the highest Cr and Zn (0.83 and 13.44 mg kg−1) in their leaves. The highest contents of Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Pb, and Zn were found in the oldest Taif rose stem (34.94, 1.16, 36.29, 49.32, 51.22, 24.76, and 32.51 g ha−1), while the highest contents of Co and Ni were found in the stems of plants that were 10 and 12 years old (3.21 and 9.54 g ha−1, respectively). The Taif rose’s stem and leaves can absorb the majority of heavy metals that have been studied with BAF values greater than one. Significant relationships between various heavy metals in the soil and the same in the stems (Al, Co, and Pb) and leaves (Co, Fe, Mn, Ni, and Pb) of Taif roses have been observed. According to the current findings, the Taif rose is a promising viable and safe crop for heavy metals phytoremediation if it is grown in polluted soil because there is little to no risk of contamination in the use of its end products, high biomass of pruning wastes, and high efficiency of heavy metal removal.

1. Introduction

Large amounts of waste biomass are produced by numerous biomass-based operations in a variety of industries including agriculture, forestry, and the biotechnology sector [1]. Instead of causing issues with the environment, economy, or ecology, turning these wastes into useful goods will sustainably contribute to the preservation of natural resources and the ecosystem [2,3]. Aromatic plants hold an adjunct position to food crops for phytoremediation due to their specialized application for the manufacture of essential oils, cosmetics, personal care products, etc., and the fact that they are not directly connected to the food chain [4]. It has frequently been claimed that growing non-edible commercial aromatic crops at heavy metal-contaminated locations would be both profitable and practical [5]. Essential oil, which is the main by-product of aromatic crops, is primarily used for non-edible purposes such as the production of soaps and detergents and the preparation of insect repellents, cosmetics, and perfumes; as a result, they can be thought of as a potential choice for minimizing food chain contamination [6].
Roses are significant aromatic plants that are grown all over the world due to the demand from florists, the necessity for perfumes and fragrances, and their use in medicine [7]. The Rosaceae family plant Rosa damascena Mill var. trigentipetala, often known as Taif’s rose, is cultivated extensively in Bulgaria, Turkey, Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Russia, India, and China [8]. It is a tall shrub that may grow to a height of 2.5 m, and only blooms once per year (in May or June) producing 500–600 flowers when fully grown [9]. At elevations between 300 and 2500 m, Taif’s rose thrives in temperate and subtropical climates [10]. Additionally, it is one of the lovely and fragrant plants that are raised for use in the culinary, medical, and fragrance industries in several Taif governorate places [11]. There are around 860 Taif’s rose farms in the Taif governorate, ranging in size from large to medium to small [7]. The trash produced by these farms may come from industrial oil distillation processes as well as agricultural rose bush trimming [12]. A very small amount is used for vegetative propagation, but the vast majority is dried and burned, creating health dangers to nearby populations as well as environmental problems such as air and soil pollution [13]. Additionally, a great number of rose flowers must be used to produce a small amount of rose water, and this procedure creates a significant amount of semisolid debris that could pollute the environment [14].
Heavy metal contamination of the soil has been caused by the prolonged use of fertilizers, the application of sewage sludge, industrial waste, and improper irrigation of agricultural regions [15,16]. Due to the inherent characteristics of the soil resulting from various parent materials, or differing management of fields within and across farms, smallholder farms, such as Taif’s rose farms, are known to be spatially heterogeneous in terms of soil fertility [17]. The production of crops on agricultural land is greatly influenced by the nutritional components’ bioavailability [18,19]. If the soils do not contain the proper amounts of nutrient components, farmers must integrate nutrients from external sources such as fertilizers and soil conditioners [20]. However, adding external fertilizer or nutrients to the soil speeds up plants’ uptake of harmful heavy metals [21,22,23]. Land use poses a threat to the environment and public safety by introducing dangerous pollutants into the soil, groundwater, and food chain [24]. The buildup of heavy metals in agricultural products has become a significant issue that has disastrous repercussions on consumer health [25]. Low quantities of heavy metals in agricultural soils may also be deposited in crop plants [18]. Heavy metals are well-known dangerous inorganic contaminants due to their environmental persistence, bioaccumulation, and toxicity to plants [26].
To mitigate soil heavy metals contamination, it is crucial to look into low-cost, eco-friendly technology made from agricultural waste [27,28]. With or without chemical changes, biosorbents made from agro-wastes such as Taif’s rose wastes that are found in nature have been employed [29]. While bioaccumulation needs the presence of living organisms and is completed in the later phases of biosorption, biosorption is a metabolically passive process that is typically carried out utilizing non-living microbiological or biological materials (such as agricultural wastes) [30]. It will take substantial research to fully utilize the phytoremediation capability of aromatic plants for the successful management of heavy metal-contaminated locations, which could result in “Green Scented Technology” [5]. The ultimate goal of the current research is to investigate the potential of Taif’s rose plants for heavy metal bioaccumulation and its impact on the growth performance of these plants. Such research may aid in determining the value of using soil additives, such as irrigation with treated wastewater or sewage sludge in Taif’s rose farms.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Plant Sampling

To gather materials for an investigation of the potential to accumulate heavy metals, four Taif’s rose farms at Al-Shafa highland, Taif Province, Saudi Arabia, were chosen. This investigation was carried out in December 2020. The ages of the farms F1, F2, F3, and F4 were 10, 12, 20, and 4 years, respectively. The soils of the study farms are sandy. The height and diameter of 10 rose plants of varied sizes were chosen from each farm. After that, bushes were clipped until they were between 80 and 90 cm tall. The fresh wastes (stems and leaves) were collected and weighed to determine their fresh biomass (kg individual−1), and then the average individual weight was multiplied by the number of individuals per farm to calculate the total fresh biomass as kg ha−1. The samples were then dried in an oven at 65 °C until they reached a consistent weight for chemical analysis.

2.2. Plant Analysis

Three composite samples of oven-dried Taif’s rose plant leaves and stems were homogenized by grinding them individually in a metal-free plastic mill, passing through a 2 mm mesh size, and then stored in plastic containers with labels. To conduct chemical studies, a sample of 1 g of each plant part was digested in 20 mL of a tri-acid combination of HNO3:H2SO4:HClO4 (5:1:1, v/v/v) until a translucent colour developed (2000). Using an atomic absorption photometer (Shimadzu AA-6200), the concentrations of Al, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb, and Zn were measured following the recommended procedures of Allen [31]. The instrument settings and operational circumstances were carried out in line with the instructions provided by the manufacturers. Heavy metal digestion and measurement were performed three times. Heavy metal digestion and their measurement were performed in triplicates. Additionally, the heavy metal concentrations were multiplied by the pruning waste biomass of the relevant plant part to determine the amount of heavy metals in the stem and leaves (g DM m−2).

2.3. Soil Sampling and Analysis

From each farm under study, three composite soil samples (N = 3 × 4 = 12) were taken from profiles that included the topsoil at a depth of 0–50 cm. The soil samples were air-dried in the lab before being sieved through a 2 mm sieve and placed in paper bags for additional chemical analysis. Soil–water extracts (1:5, w:v) were prepared for chemical analysis. A glass electrode pH meter (Model 9107 BN, ORION type) and a multi-range Cryson-HI8734 electrical conductivity meter (Crison Instruments, S.A., Barcelona, Spain) were used to measure soil pH and EC, respectively. Soil samples were digested using the acid digestion method adopted by Wade et al. [32] to determine the soil heavy metals (Al, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb, and Zn) using the same methods of plant analysis [31]. The concentrations of soil elements were expressed in mg kg−1 dry weight.

2.4. Data Analysis

The concentration of heavy metals in the stem and leaves of Taif’s rose plants and the chemical properties of the soil were compared using the simple linear correlation coefficient (r) formula. A relevant measure to assess a plant’s capacity to collect heavy metals from the soil is the bioaccumulation factor (BAF). According to Eid et al. [19], the BAF was calculated as follows: The heavy metal concentrations (mg kg−1) in the soil, stem, and leaves, respectively, are represented by Csoil, Cstem, and Cleaf in the formulas BAFstem = Cstem/Csoil and BAFleaf = Cleaf/Csoil. The significant differences in the examined growth characteristics, bioaccumulation factors, as well as the soil chemical variables of Taif’s rose plants across the investigated farms were determined using a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA I) test and Tukey’s HSD test. The significant variations in the levels of heavy metals in the various plant parts and farms were examined using a two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA II) test. SPSS software was used to conduct the statistical analysis [33].

3. Results

3.1. Soil Properties

The findings of the soil analysis revealed a considerable difference in all parameters among the study farms (p < 0.05) (Figure 1). Farm 2 (F2: 10 years old) was found to have the lowest soil pH (6.3), the highest EC (0.87 dS m−1), and the highest concentrations of Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb, Zn, Al, and Co (0.76, 0.59, 0.99, 0.67, 0.66, 1.15, 1.36, 0.26, and 0.36 mg kg−1, respectively). In contrast, the soil on the newest farm (F1: 4 years old) had the greatest pH value (8.4) along with the lowest EC (0.61 dS m−1) and the lowest concentrations of Cu, Pb, Zn, and Cd (0.14, 0.05, 0.06, and 0.23 mg kg−1, respectively). Moreover, the oldest farm’s (F4: 20 years old) soil had the highest Cd content (0.82 mg kg−1), but the lowest Fe and Al (0.07 and 0.06 mg kg−1). However, the lowest Cr, Mn, Ni, and Co contents (0.12, 0.15, 0.18, and 0.02 mg kg−1) were recorded in farm 3 (F3: 12 years old).

3.2. Plant Growth Properties

Data on plant morphology and growth parameters revealed that as plants aged, their height and diameter as well as their biomass from pruning wastes grew dramatically (Figure 2). The stem height and crown diameter of the oldest (20-year-old) shrubs were the largest (184.2 and 243.5 cm, respectively), while the crown diameter of the youngest (4-year-old) shrubs was the lowest (110.5 and 112.7 cm). Therefore, the oldest shrubs produced the largest biomass of the standing crop biomass of stem, leaves, and the total aboveground biomass (AGB) (3.5, 1.2, and 4.7 kg/shrub), as well as the highest pruning waste biomass represented by the stem, leaf, and AGB (3.9, 1.3, and 5.2 t ha−1, respectively). In addition, the youngest shrubs had the lowest biomass of any plant organ.

3.3. Heavy Metals Concentration

According to data on heavy metal concentration, the leaves of Taif’s rose shrubs collected larger concentrations of Al, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, and Zn, but the stem accumulated higher concentrations of Cd, Co, and Pb (Figure 3). Additionally, the concentration of heavy metals in the various plant organs varies significantly throughout time. The Cr and Zn concentrations in the leaves of the youngest (4-year-old) plants were highest (0.83 and 13.44 mg kg−1), and the Cu, Mn, and Pb concentrations in the stem were the lowest (3.19, 2.48, and 1.63 mg kg−1). The highest concentrations of Co and Pb (1.74 and 7.34 mg kg−1) and the lowest concentrations of Ni and Zn (1.12 and 5.50 mg kg−1) were found in the stems of shrubs that were 10 years old, while the highest concentrations of Fe, Mn, and Ni (18.55, 18.60, and 9.05 mg kg−1) were found in the leaves. Additionally, 12-year-old shrubs had the highest leaf Cu (10.29 mg kg−1) and the lowest leaf Fe (6.11 mg kg−1) as well as Al and Co in the stem (0.10 and 0.06 mg kg−1). The 20-year plant’s leaves collected the highest levels of Al and the lowest levels of Cd and Cr (1.16, 2.70, and 0.17 mg kg−1, respectively), whereas the plant stem contained the highest levels of Cd (8.94 mg kg−1).

3.4. Heavy Metals Removal Efficiency

The statistical study (ANOVA I) demonstrated that Taif’s rose shrubs of different ages had significantly differing heavy metal contents (Figure 4). The current findings demonstrated that plant stems could remove higher quantities of all heavy metals than leaves, except for Al. The highest concentrations of Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Pb, and Zn were found in the stems of the oldest Taif’s rose shrubs (34.94, 1.16, 36.29, 49.32, 51.22, 24.76, and 32.51 g ha−1, respectively), while the highest concentrations of Co and Ni were found in the stems of plants that were 10 and 12 years old (3.21 and 9.54 g ha−1, respectively). On the other hand, the leaves of the youngest plants had the lowest levels of the majority of heavy metals (apart from Al and Cr). Additionally, the oldest shrubs’ leaves had the largest quantity of Al (1.51 g ha−1), whilst the youngest plant stem had the lowest (0.11 g ha−1).

3.5. Bioaccumulation Factor (BAF)

The bioaccumulation factors (BAF) from soil to the stems and leaves of Taif roses were statistically evaluated (ANOVA), and they significantly varied among the measured heavy metals and the different plant ages (Table 1). The current research demonstrated that the Taif rose stem and leaves of various ages may accumulate the majority of heavy metals under investigation with BAF greater than one. The youngest Taif’s rose plants showed the highest BAF of Cu, Pb, and Zn (respectively 48.59, 68.99, and 279.50) in the leaves and the highest BAF of Cd and Co (31.47 and 7.24) in the stem. In addition, the stem and leaves of the 12-year-old plant exhibited the highest BAF of Cr and Mn values (6.88 and 63.88, respectively). Additionally, the BAF of Fe (175.64) in the stem and Al and Ni (30.40 and 27.52) in the leaves were also highest in the oldest plants.

3.6. Plant Stem-Soil Correlations

According to a simple linear correlation coefficient between heavy metal concentrations in Taif’s rose stems and the soil chemical properties of the four study farms, the soil pH was negatively correlated (r = −0.88 and −0.82) with stem Al and Pb but positively correlated (r = 0.53 and 0.80) with stem Ni and Zn (Figure 5). Additionally, the electrical conductivity (EC) had positive correlations with Al and Pb (r = 0.56 and −0.59) and negative correlations with Zn (r = −0.60). Al, Co, and Pb had higher concentrations in plant stems (r = 0.78, 0.76, and 0.94), while Cr, Fe, Mn, Ni, and Zn had lower concentrations (r = −0.54, −0.51, −0.63, −0.67, and −0.75) as their soil contents increased. Additionally, there was a strong positive correlation between several heavy metals in the plant stem and some soil metals. For example, the correlation between the metals Al, Cu, and Co in the stem and the metals Fe, Mn, and Ni in the soil was 0.92, 0.92, and 0.85, respectively. However, some stem heavy metal concentrations had significant negative correlations with some soil metals. For example, stem Cr and soil Cd, Pb, and Zn had r values of −0.76, −0.56, and −0.72, and stem Cd and soil Fe, Mn, and Ni had r values of −0.75, −0.67, and −0.57, and stem Zn had r values of −0.51, −0.85, and −0.74 respectively.

3.7. Plant Leaves-Soil Correlations

Regarding the simple linear correlation coefficient between heavy metal concentrations in Taif’s rose leaves and the soil chemical characteristics, the soil pH was negatively correlated with leaves Al, Co, Fe, Mn, Ni, and Pb (r = −0.75, −0.90, −0.83, −0.90, and −0.89), while EC was positively correlated with leaves (r = 0.52, 0.55, 0.63, 0.67, 0.59, and 0.65) (Figure 6). Co, Fe, Mn, Ni, and Pb concentrations in plant leaves increased as the soil content increased (r = 0.56, 0.74, 0.65, 0.57, and 0.94); however, Cd concentrations fell (r = −0.71) as soil Cd concentrations increased. Additionally, there was a strong positive correlation between some heavy metals found in plant leaves and certain soil metals, including leaf Al with soil Cr, Pb, and Zn (r = 0.68, 0.88, and 0.77), leaf Co with soil Fe, Mn, and Ni (r = 0.90, 0.92, and 0.86), and leaf Ni with soil Cu, Pb, and Zn (r = 0.75, 0.85, and 0.83). However, the concentration of some heavy metals in the leaves was negatively correlated with some soil metals. For example, the correlations between Cd, Pb, and Zn in the leaves and Cd in the soil were −0.91, −0.57, and −0.62, respectively.

4. Discussion

Taif’s rose may grow in a variety of environmental conditions, although the availability of nutrients and the soil’s capability to hold water are dependent on the soil’s physicochemical characteristics [34]. The current findings showed a significant difference in all soil parameters between the sample farms. Farm 2 (10 years old) had the lowest soil pH (6.3) along with the greatest EC (0.87 dS m−1), highest Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb, Zn, Al, and Co contents, and lowest EC. The soil on the youngest farm (F1: 4 years) had the greatest pH value (8.4) together with the lowest EC (0.61 dS m−1) and the least amount of Cu, Pb, Zn, and Cd. According to Pal and Singh [34], roses thrive in soil reactions with pH ranges between 6.0 and 7.5 that are slightly acidic to slightly alkaline, whereas acidic soil limits plant growth and diminishes blossom output most likely due to an imbalance of micronutrients. Additionally, according to Brichet [35], rose plants are susceptible to both salty and alkaline soil. Additionally, lowering soil pH raises the amount of heavy metals that are available in the soil [19,36]. However, in Indian conditions, alkali–saline soil with a pH range of 8 to 9 is relatively appropriate [37]. The recommended soil micronutrient values for roses, according to Karlik et al. [38], are (in mg kg−1) Fe (0.3–3.0), Mn (0.2–3.0), Zn (0.03–3.0), and Cu (0.001–0.5). Therefore, the soil content of these metals is suitable for the growth of Taif’s rose, except Cu in farm 2, which exceeded the required limit.
Pruning flowering plants is a successful agricultural technique for improving development and blossoming [39]. The biomass of the pruning wastes and the plant height and diameter both considerably increased as the age of the plant rose. As a result, the average biomass of the stem, leaves, and aboveground biomass pruning wastes was 2.4, 0.8, and 3.2 t ha−1, respectively. Pruning wastes are disposed of by drying, burning, or storing them, which pollutes the environment [40]. Taif’s rose is grown on over 860 farms spread across Taif governorate and its suburbs [11]; as a result, roughly 2752 tons of pruning debris, similar to the 2730 tons noted by Galal et al. [41], may be created and result in a serious environmental issue. Therefore, it is of great importance and urgent need for recycling these agricultural wastes and reusing them for various economic purposes.
Al, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, and Zn were more abundant in Taif rose shrubs’ leaves than in their stems, which were more abundant in Cd, Co, and Pb. The concentration of the analyzed metals (except for Co and Ni) in the stem and leaves of Taif roses did not surpass the safe level for typical plants based on the normal level of heavy metals in plants [31,42,43,44]. The WHO’s recommended limit for Ni in plants is 10 mg kg−1 [45]. Plant growth and biomass production are hampered by heavy metals such as Ni and Co, which also have a deleterious effect on their chlorophyll content [46,47]. The largest concentrations of Cr and Zn were collected by the youngest plants (4 years), whereas Co, Pb, Fe, Mn, and Ni were deposited by shrubs 10 years old, Cu by shrubs 12 years old, and Al by shrubs 20 years old. Phragmites australis has a high capacity for absorbing heavy metals for up to 10 years, according to reports from Cicero-Fernández et al. [48] and Eid et al. [49].
Information on a plant’s chemical makeup and biomass is needed to calculate how well it removes heavy metals from the environment, which is useful for determining a species’ specific heavy metal amounts per unit area [41]. By multiplying the element concentration in tissue by its biomass, the amount of heavy metals was determined. Plant biomass is regarded as the primary component for calculating the standing stock of heavy metals, according to Vymazal [50]. The current findings show that plant stems can remove larger quantities of all heavy metals than leaves, except for Al. This may be due to stems’ higher biomass than leaves. The highest concentrations of Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Pb, and Zn were found in the stems of the oldest Taif’s rose shrubs, whereas the highest concentrations of Co and Ni were found in the stems of plants between 10 and 12 years old. It is important to note that Taif’s rose shrubs are supported for prospective application in heavy metals clean-up from contaminated soils by the heavy metal contents eliminated by their pruning wastes.
The bioaccumulation factor (BAF) was used to determine the relationship between the concentration of heavy metals in the soil and plant tissues [51]. This indicator of the ability of available metals to be taken up by a plant from its environment provides insight into whether the plant is an excluder, accumulator, or indicator [52]. The BAF from soil to the stem and leaves of the Taif’s rose demonstrated that plants of various ages might acquire the majority of the heavy metals under investigation with a BAF greater than one. The majority of heavy metals found in Taif’s rose plants had high BAF levels, indicating a high likelihood that this plant will concentrate those metals in its tissues [53]. Younger plants have a greater capacity to acquire heavy metals. The stem and leaves of the youngest Taif’s rose plants had the highest BAFs of Cd and Co, as well as the highest BAFs of Cu, Pb, and Zn. Additionally, the stem and leaves of the 12-year-old plant showed the highest levels of BAF for Cr and Mn, respectively. Furthermore, the BAF of Fe in the stem and Al and Ni in the leaves were both highest in the oldest plants. High metal content and high BAF, as reported by Fawzy et al. [29], suggest that this species may be a good carrier for absorbing heavy metals from nutrient-rich soils. According to Pandey et al. [5], aromatic plants, which operate as possible phytostabilizers, hyper-accumulators for particular heavy metals, bio-monitors, and facultative metallophytes, have a significant potential for phytoremediation of heavy metal-contaminated soils.
The simple linear correlation coefficient revealed a strong negative link with soil pH and a substantial positive correlation between the heavy metal contents in Taif’s rose stems, leaves, and the soil EC. The pH of the soil plays a crucial role in regulating how readily available trace metals are to plants [54]. According to Jung [55] and Eid et al. [56], soil pH, which has a negative correlation with the presence of heavy metals in plants, is crucial for controlling the uptake of heavy metals by plants. Significant relationships between various heavy metals in the soil and the same in the stems (Al, Co, and Pb) and leaves of Taif roses have been observed (Co, Fe, Mn, Ni, and Pb). This finding suggests that heavy metal concentrations in plant tissues were dependent on their levels in the soils [19]. Eid et al. [56], who observed that heavy-metal concentrations in plants rise with an increase in their levels in the soil, made similar predictions. Additionally, the use of this plant as a bioindicator and biomonitor of these heavy metals in contaminated soils is supported by the significantly positive correlations between the majority of heavy metal concentrations in the soil and rose tissues [53,57]. Additionally, these relationships imply that Taif’s rose plants might represent the cumulative impact of environmental pollution as a result of soil contamination, with heavy metal concentrations rising in plant tissues as they do so in the soil [19,58].
Many studies had shown that growing aromatic plants such as lavender [59], basil [60,61], rosemary [62], and Mentha [46,63] in contaminated soils did not significantly increase the risk of metal contamination in essential oils. According to Zheljazkov and Nielsen [64], after being harvested, several aromatic plants considerably acquire heavy metals from heavy metal-polluted locations. In addition, Cr, Pb, Zn, and Cu were discovered by Onursal and Ekinci [65] in rose oil processing wastes at quantities that were significantly lower than those allowed by law. By absorbing certain hazardous substances through their roots and storing them in less harmful forms throughout the plant, plants are believed to help the environment become less polluted [66]. Most plants, when grown in contaminated environments, ingest and translocate harmful components to the harvestable sections, which is a process known as phytoremediation [67]. The right plant must be chosen for phytoremediation projects for them to be successful. It must be a high-value economic crop with no or little risk of contamination when used to make final products and unusual characteristics (such as high biomass and high heavy-metal extraction efficiency) [5]. Taif rose is a viable and secure crop for the phytoremediation of soils affected by heavy metals. The pruning wastes of Taif’s rose could be converted to ash and packed in a safe place, or the absorbed heavy metals could also be recovered for economic purposes.

5. Conclusions

Taif rose may grow in a variety of soil types with different physicochemical characteristics and environmental conditions. The biomass of the pruning wastes and the plant height and diameter both considerably increased as the age of the plant rose. Al, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, and Zn were more abundant in Taif rose shrubs’ leaves than in their stems, which were more abundant in Cd, Co, and Pb. The current findings show that plant stems can remove larger quantities of all heavy metals than leaves, except for Al. This may be due to stems’ higher biomass than leaves. The BAF from soil to the stem and leaves of the Taif’s rose demonstrated that plants of various ages might acquire the majority of the heavy metals under investigation with a BAF greater than one. The use of this plant as a bioindicator and biomonitor of these heavy metals in contaminated soils is supported by the significantly positive correlations between the majority of heavy metal concentrations in the soil and rose tissues. The current findings revealed that Taif’s rose is a promising viable and safe crop for heavy metals phytoremediation if it is grown in polluted soil because there is little to no risk of contamination in the use of its end products, high biomass of pruning wastes, and high efficiency of heavy metal removal.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, E.A.F., E.F.A. and T.M.G.; methodology, E.A.F., E.F.A., T.M.G., E.M.E., A.M. and H.M.A.-Y., software, T.M.G. and E.M.E., validation, E.A.F., E.F.A., T.M.G., E.M.E., A.M. and H.M.A.-Y.; formal analysis, E.A.F., E.F.A., T.M.G., E.M.E. and H.M.A.-Y.; investigation, E.A.F., E.F.A. and A.M.; resources, E.F.A., T.M.G., A.M. and H.M.A.-Y.; data curation, E.F.A., E.M.E., A.M. and H.M.A.-Y.; writing—original draft preparation, E.A.F., E.F.A., T.M.G., E.M.E., A.M. and H.M.A.-Y.; writing—review and editing, E.F.A. and T.M.G.; visualization, E.M.E., A.M. and H.M.A.-Y.; supervision, E.F.A. and T.M.G.; project administration, E.F.A. and T.M.G.; funding acquisition, E.A.F., E.F.A. and T.M.G.; methodology, E.A.F., E.F.A., T.M.G., E.M.E. and A.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the High-Altitude Research Centre at Taif University, Taif, Saudi Arabia, under project number 1-442-42.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Acknowledgments

The authors acknowledge the Dean of Scientific Research at Taif University, Taif, Saudi Arabia, for funding this work through the High-Altitude Research Centre, under project number 1-442-42.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

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Agriculture 12 01319 g001 550
Figure 1. Mean soil characteristics of the sampled farms support the growth of Taif’s rose populations in the mountainous area of Taif City, Saudi Arabia. The standard errors of the means (n = 6) are indicated by vertical bars. F-values demonstrate the one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), degrees of freedom (df) = 3. Means with different letters are significantly different at p < 0.05 according to Tukey’s HSD test.
Figure 1. Mean soil characteristics of the sampled farms support the growth of Taif’s rose populations in the mountainous area of Taif City, Saudi Arabia. The standard errors of the means (n = 6) are indicated by vertical bars. F-values demonstrate the one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), degrees of freedom (df) = 3. Means with different letters are significantly different at p < 0.05 according to Tukey’s HSD test.
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Agriculture 12 01319 g002 550
Figure 2. Mean morphological and biomass variables of Taif’s rose populations grown on four farms in the mountainous area of Taif City in Saudi Arabia. The standard errors of the means (n = 10) are indicated by vertical bars. F-values demonstrate the one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), degrees of freedom (df) = 3. Means with different letters are significantly different at p < 0.05 according to Tukey’s HSD test.
Figure 2. Mean morphological and biomass variables of Taif’s rose populations grown on four farms in the mountainous area of Taif City in Saudi Arabia. The standard errors of the means (n = 10) are indicated by vertical bars. F-values demonstrate the one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), degrees of freedom (df) = 3. Means with different letters are significantly different at p < 0.05 according to Tukey’s HSD test.
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Agriculture 12 01319 g003 550
Figure 3. Mean heavy metal concentrations (mg kg−1) in the leaves and stems of Taif’s rose populations grown on four farms in the mountainous area of Taif City in Saudi Arabia. The standard errors of the means (n = 6) are indicated by vertical bars. F-values demonstrate the two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). *: p < 0.05; ***: p < 0.001; ns: not significant (i.e., p > 0.05).
Figure 3. Mean heavy metal concentrations (mg kg−1) in the leaves and stems of Taif’s rose populations grown on four farms in the mountainous area of Taif City in Saudi Arabia. The standard errors of the means (n = 6) are indicated by vertical bars. F-values demonstrate the two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). *: p < 0.05; ***: p < 0.001; ns: not significant (i.e., p > 0.05).
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Agriculture 12 01319 g004 550
Figure 4. Mean heavy metal contents (g ha−1) in the leaves and stems of Taif’s rose populations grown on four farms in the mountainous area of Taif City in Saudi Arabia. The standard errors of the means (n = 6) are indicated by vertical bars. F-values demonstrate the two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). ***: p < 0.001.
Figure 4. Mean heavy metal contents (g ha−1) in the leaves and stems of Taif’s rose populations grown on four farms in the mountainous area of Taif City in Saudi Arabia. The standard errors of the means (n = 6) are indicated by vertical bars. F-values demonstrate the two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). ***: p < 0.001.
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Figure 5. Pearson correlation coefficient (r-values, n = 24) between heavy metal concentrations in Taif’s rose stems and the chemical characteristics of the soil from four farms in the mountainous area of Taif City in Saudi Arabia; EC: electrical conductivity.
Figure 5. Pearson correlation coefficient (r-values, n = 24) between heavy metal concentrations in Taif’s rose stems and the chemical characteristics of the soil from four farms in the mountainous area of Taif City in Saudi Arabia; EC: electrical conductivity.
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Figure 6. Pearson correlation coefficient (r-values, n = 24) between heavy metal concentrations in Taif’s rose leaves and the chemical characteristics of the soil from four farms in the mountainous area of Taif City in Saudi Arabia; EC: electrical conductivity.
Figure 6. Pearson correlation coefficient (r-values, n = 24) between heavy metal concentrations in Taif’s rose leaves and the chemical characteristics of the soil from four farms in the mountainous area of Taif City in Saudi Arabia; EC: electrical conductivity.
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Table
Table 1. Bioaccumulation factors (BAFs), from soil to stems, and leaves, of 10 heavy metals in Taif’s rose populations grown on four farms in the mountainous area of Taif City in Saudi Arabia (means ± standard error, n = 6).
Table 1. Bioaccumulation factors (BAFs), from soil to stems, and leaves, of 10 heavy metals in Taif’s rose populations grown on four farms in the mountainous area of Taif City in Saudi Arabia (means ± standard error, n = 6).
MetalFactorFarm Age (Years)F-Value
4101220
AlBAFstem1.16 ± 0.06a2.27 ± 0.47a1.11 ± 0.30a2.82 ± 0.88a2.6 ns
BAFleaf3.98 ± 0.18a5.13 ± 1.05a3.12 ± 0.79a30.40 ± 9.57b7.5 **
CdBAFstem31.47 ± 1.06b13.41 ± 1.94a23.02 ± 4.30b11.33 ± 0.97a14.2 ***
BAFleaf30.58 ± 0.37c12.74 ± 2.17b11.45 ± 1.69b3.42 ± 0.29a67.4 ***
CoBAFstem7.24 ± 1.28c6.00 ± 1.40bc3.23 ± 0.41ab1.39 ± 0.14a7.4 **
BAFleaf0.73 ± 0.05a3.06 ± 0.76bc4.93 ± 0.92c1.89 ± 0.19ab8.7 **
CrBAFstem0.86 ± 0.03a0.58 ± 0.02a6.88 ± 1.12b0.47 ± 0.04a31.0 ***
BAFleaf1.32 ± 0.17a0.74 ± 0.01a4.65 ± 0.77b0.27 ± 0.03a25.4 ***
CuBAFstem27.49 ± 4.22bc11.69 ± 1.44a19.25 ± 2.16ab36.93 ± 4.53c10.5 ***
BAFleaf48.59 ± 10.39b13.97 ± 1.89a44.94 ± 2.35b33.27 ± 3.63ab7.5 **
FeBAFstem18.93 ± 1.43a7.26 ± 0.30a90.46 ± 6.77b175.64 ± 15.37c84.8 ***
BAFleaf21.15 ± 4.76a19.39 ± 2.48a61.34 ± 3.52b129.71 ± 7.70c106.2 ***
MnBAFstem6.61 ± 0.43a6.18 ± 0.20a60.82 ± 2.62b60.60 ± 3.30b218.2 ***
BAFleaf9.54 ± 0.46a28.11 ± 1.59b63.81 ± 3.12d37.51 ± 1.58c136.5 ***
NiBAFstem3.57 ± 0.14ab1.91 ± 0.37a20.14 ± 2.13c6.41 ± 0.86b50.9 ***
BAFleaf4.81 ± 0.25a14.92 ± 2.14b6.82 ± 0.91a27.52 ± 2.54c35.6 ***
PbBAFstem43.36 ± 12.61b6.46 ± 0.25a11.22 ± 1.52a6.78 ± 0.69a7.8 **
BAFleaf68.99 ± 18.43b5.43 ± 0.29a9.67 ± 1.20a5.52 ± 0.55a11.3 ***
ZnBAFstem206.81 ± 41.54b4.17 ± 0.40a94.38 ± 34.32a7.83 ± 0.40a12.5 ***
BAFleaf279.50 ± 63.27b9.16 ± 0.93a126.40 ± 44.41a9.07 ± 0.41a11.0 ***
F-valueBAFstem20.3 ***19.9 ***10.0 ***108.9 ***
F-valueBAFleaf16.1 ***28.9 ***8.2 ***85.7 ***
F-values represent one-way ANOVA; degrees of freedom (df) = 3; means in the same row followed by different letters are significantly different at p < 0.05, according to Tukey’s HSD test; **: p < 0.01; ***: p < 0.001; ns: not significant (i.e., p > 0.05).
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Galal, T.M.; Majrashi, A.; Al-Yasi, H.M.; Farahat, E.A.; Eid, E.M.; Ali, E.F. Taif’s Rose (Rosa damascena Mill var. trigentipetala) Wastes Are a Potential Candidate for Heavy Metals Remediation from Agricultural Soil. Agriculture 2022, 12, 1319. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture12091319

AMA Style

Galal TM, Majrashi A, Al-Yasi HM, Farahat EA, Eid EM, Ali EF. Taif’s Rose (Rosa damascena Mill var. trigentipetala) Wastes Are a Potential Candidate for Heavy Metals Remediation from Agricultural Soil. Agriculture. 2022; 12(9):1319. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture12091319

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Galal, Tarek M., Ali Majrashi, Hatim M. Al-Yasi, Emad A. Farahat, Ebrahem M. Eid, and Esmat F. Ali. 2022. "Taif’s Rose (Rosa damascena Mill var. trigentipetala) Wastes Are a Potential Candidate for Heavy Metals Remediation from Agricultural Soil" Agriculture 12, no. 9: 1319. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture12091319

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