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Article

Estimation of Total Nitrogen Content in Topsoil Based on Machine and Deep Learning Using Hyperspectral Imaging

1
Agriculture and Life Sciences Research Institute, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon 24341, Republic of Korea
2
Interdisciplinary Program in Smart Agriculture, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon 24341, Republic of Korea
3
Environmental Microbial and Food Safety Laboratory, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Powder Mill Rd. Bldg. 303, BARC-East, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA
4
Department of Regional lnfrastructure Engineering, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon 24341, Republic of Korea
5
Department of Biosystems Engineering, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon 24341, Republic of Korea
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Agriculture 2023, 13(10), 1975; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture13101975
Submission received: 25 July 2023 / Revised: 4 October 2023 / Accepted: 8 October 2023 / Published: 11 October 2023

Abstract

Excessive total nitrogen (TN) content in topsoil is a major cause of eutrophication when nitrogen flows into water systems from soil losses. Therefore, TN content prediction is essential for establishing topsoil management systems and protecting aquatic ecosystems. Recently, hyperspectral imaging (HSI) has been used as a rapid, nondestructive technique for quantifying various soil properties. This study developed a machine and deep learning-based model using hyperspectral imaging to rapidly measure TN contents. A total of 139 topsoil samples were collected from the four major rivers in the Republic of Korea. Visible-to-near-infrared (VNIR) and near-infrared (NIR) hyperspectral imaging data were acquired in the 400–1000 nm and 895–1720 nm ranges, respectively. Prediction models for predicting the TN content in the topsoil were developed using partial least square regression (PLSR) and one-dimensional convolutional neural networks (1D-CNNs). From the total number of pixels in each topsoil sample, 12.5, 25, and 50% of the pixels were randomly selected, and the data were augmented 10 times to improve the performance of the 1D-CNN model. The performances of the models were evaluated by estimating the coefficients of determination (R2) and root mean squared errors (RMSE). The Rp2 values of the optimal PLSR (with maximum normalization preprocessing) and 1D-CNN (with SNV preprocessing) models were 0.72 and 0.92, respectively. Therefore, HSI can be used to estimate TN content in topsoil and build a topsoil database to develop conservation strategies.
Keywords: soil nitrogen; hyperspectral; spectral preprocessing; partial least square regression (PLSR); one-dimensional convolutional neural network (1D-CNN) soil nitrogen; hyperspectral; spectral preprocessing; partial least square regression (PLSR); one-dimensional convolutional neural network (1D-CNN)

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MDPI and ACS Style

Kim, M.-J.; Lee, J.-E.; Back, I.; Lim, K.J.; Mo, C. Estimation of Total Nitrogen Content in Topsoil Based on Machine and Deep Learning Using Hyperspectral Imaging. Agriculture 2023, 13, 1975. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture13101975

AMA Style

Kim M-J, Lee J-E, Back I, Lim KJ, Mo C. Estimation of Total Nitrogen Content in Topsoil Based on Machine and Deep Learning Using Hyperspectral Imaging. Agriculture. 2023; 13(10):1975. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture13101975

Chicago/Turabian Style

Kim, Min-Jee, Jae-Eun Lee, Insuck Back, Kyoung Jae Lim, and Changyeun Mo. 2023. "Estimation of Total Nitrogen Content in Topsoil Based on Machine and Deep Learning Using Hyperspectral Imaging" Agriculture 13, no. 10: 1975. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture13101975

APA Style

Kim, M.-J., Lee, J.-E., Back, I., Lim, K. J., & Mo, C. (2023). Estimation of Total Nitrogen Content in Topsoil Based on Machine and Deep Learning Using Hyperspectral Imaging. Agriculture, 13(10), 1975. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture13101975

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