Effect of Soil Agricultural Use on Particle-Size Distribution in Young Glacial Landscape Slopes
by
, and
Paweł Sowiński
*
,
Sławomir Smólczyński
,
Mirosław Orzechowski
,
Barbara Kalisz
and
Arkadiusz Bieniek
Department of Soil Science and Microbiology, Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Plac Łódzki 3, 10-727 Olsztyn, Poland
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Agriculture 2023, 13(3), 584; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture13030584
Submission received: 20 January 2023
/
Revised: 25 February 2023
/
Accepted: 25 February 2023
/
Published: 27 February 2023
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cropping System Impact on Soil Quality and Greenhouse Gas Emissions)
Abstract
:In the literature, mainly particle-size distribution (PSD) analyses in the soil catenas, of e.g., moraine and riverine landscapes were discussed. Analysis and comparison of PSD in moraine (ML) and ice-dammed lakes (ID-LL) landscapes were not studied. Since the landscape of ice-dammed lakes origin has diversified relief and is under intensive agricultural use, the aspects of erosion are of great importance. The changes in PSD were studied in 14 soil catenas (toposequences) of eroding soils at the upper slope (US) as well as colluvial soils at the middle (MS) and lower (LS) slopes and in the depressions (D). The PSD of the fine fractions (<2 mm) was analysed according to the hydrometer method. In order to describe the effect of agricultural use on the variability of PSD in soil surface horizons, sedimentological and granulometric indices were calculated. In the studied moraine landscape, the content of coarse silt fraction was increasing in the catenal sequence from 9.7% in the US to 17.7% in the D. Similar relationships were revealed for the fine silt content. Significant differences were found between the average contents of coarse and fine silt fractions at the US as well as the LS and the D. However, such a relation was not found in the soil catena in the ice-dammed lake landscape. Eroded and colluvial soil materials were very poorly sorted with a standard deviation index of 2.65–3.69. Humus horizons of analysed soils had very fine, fine skewed PSD, mesokurtic and platykurtic distribution (ML), symmetrical, fine skewed and platykurtic distribution (I-DLL). The cluster analysis enabled the separation of two groups of soils: one group in the moraine landscape and the other in the ice-dammed lakes landscape. The PSD in studied soils was similar only among the soils within one type of landscape.
1. Introduction
Soils in young-glacial, agricultural landscapes are characterized by the high dynamics of soil processes. Glacial landforms may form a mosaic in the landscape thus the variety of soil processes is considerably high, resulting in, among others, assorted soil texture. Agricultural landscapes are particularly susceptible to the processes of translocation of soil material along the slope [1,2,3]. These processes are commonly referred to in the literature as anthropogenic denudation and are related to direct or indirect agricultural activity [4,5]. The effects of anthropogenic denudation processes can be considered from two angles. On the one hand, on the summit and upper slope, they reduce through tillage erosion and the thickness of humus horizons and then mix them with subsoil horizons. On the other hand, in lower parts of slopes and depressions, they accumulate colluvial materials [6,7,8]. In this way, specific chains and sequences of soils in erosional catenas (toposequences) are developed. An important link in these sequences is colluvial soils, which are located between the eroded soils at upper slopes and organic soils in the depressions, which act as geochemical barriers and ecotonal zones [2,7,9]. Eroded soil material can be used to estimate potential nutrient losses from soil and pollution hazards to the environment; therefore, the knowledge of PSD in soils at the slopes is of great importance [10].
In the literature, there are viewpoints that the thickness and the accumulation rate of colluvial sediments in young glacial agricultural landscapes should not be directly related to the beginning of the colluvial material deposition, but mainly to the particle-size distribution (PSD) and slope inclination [11]. A very important aspect is the time of agricultural use, mainly as ploughlands. The colluvial processes in north-eastern Poland are diverse in terms of age, and colluvial sediments are dated from over 4000 years BP to about 500 years BP [11,12,13].
A fundamental property of all mineral soils is the particle-size distribution. PSD influences the physical and chemical properties of soils [14,15,16]. It affects water-air relations, i.e., soil water retention and drainage. PSD affects the amount of macro- and microelements, including their bioavailability. Soil developed from silts or clay are fertile and can retain water whereas sandy soils are permeable, and the nutrients are easily washed out. The content and distribution of individual fractions and sub-fractions allow proper interpretation of other soil properties [17]. PSDs are the major issue in environmental research, due to their great impact on soil properties and soil management [18]. A proper discussion of the PSD results is crucial for understanding and quantifying soil cover and dynamics of soil use, as well as predictions of soil erosion and translocation of fine fractions [19,20].
PSD in soil science is analysed, most often, by hydrometer, pipette, and sieving ore laser diffraction methods [21,22,23]. For the detailed analyses and interpretation of the PSD results, various mathematical models are used [24,25]. The lack of proper preparation of soil samples may produce imprecise and wrong results [26,27]; therefore, a wide analysis of PSD results is of great importance. Moreover, sedimentological and granulometric indices, calculated on the basis of PSD, allow the assessment of the nature and homogeneity of soil materials and the determination of pedogenesis and classification [3,28,29,30,31].
Practical use of PSD results is also of great importance. In agriculture, for fertilization purposes or for reports on soil drought, soil agronomic categories (very light, light, medium, or heavy soils) are significant. In Poland, additionally, information on soil textural classes is included in soil-agricultural maps, which can be used in different environmental evaluations and agricultural advisory services. In soil cartography, PSD is the basic soil property on the basis of which, and derived soil properties, e.g., soil structure and compaction, soil valuation is made [32,33,34,35].
In the literature, mainly PSD analyses in the soil catenas of e.g., moraine and riverine landscapes were discussed. Analysis and comparison of PSD in moraine and ice-dammed lakes landscapes were not studied. Since the landscape of ice-dammed lakes origin has diversified relief and is under intensive agricultural use, the aspects of erosion are of great importance. Therefore, we believe it is crucial to answer whether heavier soils are more susceptible to the translocation of soil material on the slope. The aims of the work were (1) identification of the catenal variability of PSD in the soils at various slope positions in moraine and ice-dammed lakes landscapes, (2) determination of sedimentological and granulometric indices in eroded and colluvial horizons, (3) indication of characteristic parameters and indicators of PSD in colluvial materials in soils in young glacial landscapes and (4) presentation of similarities and differences in PSD in the soils in moraine and ice-dammed lakes landscapes.
2. Materials and Methods
The study was carried out at 14 soil catenas, representing the young glacial landscape in northern-central Europe (north-eastern Poland) in four mesoregions: Olsztyn Lakeland, Jeziorany-Bisztynek Heights, Mrągowo Lakeland and Sępopolska Lowland. The first three represent moraine landscapes (macroregion Masurian Lakeland; twelve soil catenas), and Sępopolska Lowland represents an ice-dammed lakes landscape (macroregion Old Prussian Lowland; two soil catenas) (Table 1, Figure 1) [36]. The origin of these landscapes is related to the activity of a glacier in Leszno, Poznań and Pomeranian Phase of Weichselian glaciation, as well as to colluvial processes in the Holocene. The moraine landscape has an undulating and hilly relief (3.8–15.5% slope at analysed soil catenas) associated with the presence of large areas of a bottom moraine formed by boulder clays that are often sandy at the top (Figure 2). Ice-dammed lakes landscape is not flat; however, it is less undulating (2.6–5.1% slope at analysed soil catenas) than moraine landscape, and it is associated with the presence of clay sediments of glacilacustrine origin (Table 1). In the studied landscapes, soil toposequences typical for young glacial areas occurred. At the top and upper parts of the slopes brown soils (e.g., Gleyic or District Cambisols) and clay-illuvial soils (e.g., Stagnic Luvisols) (moraine landscape), in addition to those already mentioned, as well as black earths (e.g., Gleyic or Vertic Phaeozems) and vertisols (e.g., Haplic Vertisols) (ice-dammed lakes landscape) occurred [3,11,37,38,39,40,41,42,43].
At the lower parts of the slope, colluvial soils (e.g., Solimovic Regosols, Solimovic Cambisols, Phaeozems Solimovic) on mineral subsoil (middle and lower slope) as well as colluvial soils on organic soil occurred. All analysed soils were used as ploughlands (soils at the upper and lower slopes and some soils in the depressions) and as grasslands (soils in the depressions).
2.1. Soil Sampling and Preparation
For the analysis of particle-size distribution, 147 soil samples were collected from 58 soil profiles. In the catenas, soil profiles were grouped according to their position on the slope: upper slope, middle slope, lower slope and depression. In the moraine landscape, in total 87 soil samples (from 45 soil profiles) were collected from humus horizons of errored and colluvial soil and an additional 21 soil samples of the parent material. In the ice-dammed lakes landscape, a total of 27 soil samples (from 13 soil profiles) were collected from humus horizons of errored and colluvial soil and an additional 12 soil samples of the parent material. In the laboratory, soil samples were crushed using mortar and pestle and sieved through a 2 mm sieve to separate soil skeleton fractions from fine earths. Then, CaCO3 and organic matter were removed by adding HCl (concentration 10%) and H2O2 (concentration 30%) according to standard soil analyses [44]. The PSD of the fine fractions (<2 mm) was analysed according to the hydrometer method of Bouyoucos modified by Casagrande and Prószyński with the separation of sand sub-fractions by dry sieving [44]. The soil fractions and texture classes were determined according to the classification of the Polish Society of Soil Science, comparable with the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) classification system [45]. The following particle sizes were analysed (abbreviated names of soil fractions are provided in brackets): gravel (g) >2.0, very coarse sand (vcos)—2.0–1.0, coarse sand (cos)—1.0–0.5, medium sand (ms)—0.5–0.25, fine sand (fs)—0.25–0.10, very fine sand (vfs)—0.10–0.05, coarse silt (cosi)—0.05–0.02 fine silt (fsi)—0.02–0.002 and clay (c)—<0.002.
2.2. Sedimentological and Granulometric Indices
The calculated sedimentological and granulometric indices enabled the determination of the origin and degree of transformation of primary soil materials and the assessment of the sedimentological environment. The results of PSD analysis (percentage of fractions) were analysed with SIEWCA software [46]—calculation of sedimentological indices according to Folk and Ward [47]. For granulometric analyses the following indices were used: mean diameter (Mz), standard deviation (δ1), skewness (Sk1) and kurtosis (KG).
The mean diameter was calculated for diameters from 2.0 mm to <0.002 mm. This parameter enabled the determination of the average grain diameter in a given distribution.
Standard deviation characterized the dispersion of components in a given particle size distribution and allowed us to determine whether the given sediment was strongly or weakly concentrated around the average value in terms of grain size. On the basis of this indicator, the degree of soil sorting could be determined. According to Folk and Ward [47], the following sorting classes were identified: <0.35—very well sorted, 0.35–0.5—well sorted, 0.5–0.7—moderately well sorted, 0.7–1.0—moderately sorted, 1.0–2.0—poorly sorted, 2.0–4.0—very poorly sorted and >4.0—extremely poorly sorted.
Skewness is an indicator of the asymmetry of the distribution around the mean. The following skewness values of particle-size distributions were identified: from +1.0 to +0.3: very fine skewed, from +0.3 to +0.1: fine skewed, from +0.1 to −0.1: symmetrical, from −0.1 to −0.3: coarse skewed and from −0.3 to −1.0: very coarse skewed. Skewness is positive when the numerical predominance occurs around the low value of the variable, i.e., fractions with smaller diameters predominate. This allowed us to determine the dominance of specific fractions in the studied soil materials.
Kurtosis is a relative measure of the concentration and flattening of the distribution. Kurtosis can take the following values: <0.67—very platykurtic, 0.67–0.90—platykurtic, 0.90–1.11—mesokurtic, 1.11–1.50—leptokurtic, 1.50–3.00—very leptokurtic or >3.00—extremely leptokurtic. Mesokurtic distribution is also referred to as normal distribution, platykurtic—flattened distribution and leptokurtic—slender distribution.
Granulometric indices were also calculated, and the relative proportions between fractions of bigger diameters were revealed [28,29]. These parameters can be useful in predicting the initial homogeneity or heterogeneity of soil material. Ratios between the following soil fractions were calculated (ø in mm) A = 0.25–0.10 / 0.50–0.25, B = 0.25–0.10 / 1.00–0.50, C = 0.25–0.05 / 0.50–0.25, D = 0.25–0.02 / 1.00–0.25, E = 0.50–0.05 / 1.0–0.50.
2.3. Statistical Analysis
Statistical calculations (mean, correlation coefficients, standard deviation, clustering) were carried out using Statistica 13.1. The agglomerative hierarchical cluster analysis using Ward’s method was applied to group the soil materials in two studied landscapes. The basis for choosing the Ward’s method was its efficiency that derives from using an analysis of variance approach to estimate the distance between clusters. In general, this approach minimizes the sum of the squared deviation of any two clusters which may be formed at the stages of the analysis.
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Particle-Size Distribution and Texture Classes
The studied soil humus horizons had diverse particle-size distributions. In the moraine landscape, nine texture classes were identified. At upper, middle and lower parts of the slope, mainly sandy loam and in the depression loam and silt clay loam (Table 2) occurred. In the ice-dammed lakes landscape, the humus horizons had loam and clay loam texture. The PSD of parent material in eroded and colluvial soils was very diverse—in the moraine landscape, in half of the samples, it was loamy sand. In the ice-dammed lakes landscape, the parent material had the texture of loam and clay loam.
In the studied moraine landscape, in humus horizons, the content of the silt fraction was increasing in a soil catena (Table 3). The average content of coarse silt increased from 9.7% at the upper slope to 17.7% in the depression. Significant differences were found between the average content of this fraction in the US as well as the LS and the D, and between the MS as well as the LS and the D. Similar relationships were revealed for the fine silt content. The average contents of fractions with a diameter of 0.02–0.002 mm amounted to 9.8% in the US and 11.4% in the MS and were significantly lower than in the D (16.7%).
The contents of clay fractions did not show transparent regularity in the studied catenas. They were the lowest at the middle slope (average of 8.2%) and the highest at the lower slope (average of 12.9%).
The contents of sand subfractions: very coarse sand, coarse, medium and fine sand were inverse to the contents of silt and decreased down the slope. The average contents of these subfractions in the soil at the upper and middle slopes were significantly higher than at the lower slope and in the depression. On the other hand, the average content of very fine sand did not show significant differences in soil surface horizons at different positions at the slope and in relation to the content in the parent material. Moreover, the average contents of sand subfractions of 2.0–1.0 mm and 1.0–0.5 mm in the parent material were higher than in the surface (humus) horizons. However, the contents of medium sand and fine sand in the parent material were similar to the contents in humus horizons at the upper and middle parts of the slope. The average contents of coarse and fine silts in parent materials were significantly lower than in humus horizons at the lower part of the slope and in the depression.
The smallest contents of coarse and fine silts found in the US and an increase of their content down the slope prove that these fractions are translocated in the catenas. Consequently, the soil formations in the UP and MD are relatively enriched in sand subfractions of diameters of 2.0–1.0, 1.0–0.5, 0.5–0.25 and 0.25–0.10 compared to LM and D positions. The contents of clay fractions did not show regularity in studied catenas. It was the lowest in soils at the middle slope (8.2% on average) and the highest in soils at the lower slope (12,9% on average).
In the ice-dammed lakes landscape, in humus horizons, average contents of very fine sand, coarse silt, fine silt and clay fractions at various positions at the slope were not statistically different (Table 4). The average contents of medium sand at the upper slope and middle slope were higher than in the soils at the lower slope or in the depression, whereas the contents of fine sand were lower in soils at the upper slope and middle slope than at the lower slope or in the depression.
The PSD in surface horizons in relation to parent material was interesting. The average contents of clay fractions were statistically significantly higher in parent material than in humus horizons. The average contents of coarse and fine silts did not show significant differences compared to the parent material. However, the contents of sand fraction were lower in parent materials than in humus horizons.
In the literature, there is a very common view that the PSD of colluvial material is a derivative of the PSD of eroded soils [3,12,31,48]. Smolska [48] indicated that the material deposited at lower parts of the slope was usually finer than in eroded soil. Another characteristic feature is the transport of soil aggregates along the slope and their higher stability in colluvial horizons [14]. Researchers clearly indicate that changes in PSD occur as a result of soil use or ecological restoration [20,24,25]. The lack of clear translocation and accumulation of finer fractions (at lower parts of the slope) should be explained by the length of slopes in the young-glacial landscape [8,49]. The soil material is translocated as a result of anthropogenic denudation at a short slope; the middle part usually does not show changes in relation to eroded material. More pronounced changes can be observed at the lower slope and in the depressions. It can be assumed that the longer the cycle, the clearer the change of PSD in colluvial materials in relation to eroded material [12,48].
3.2. Sedimentological and Granulometric Indices
The calculated average values of mean grain diameter were decreasing down the slope in humus horizons in both landscapes. The Mz values in the moraine landscape, in the parent material, were close to the values in humus horizons at the lower slope or in the depression and amounted to 0.0280–0.0333 mm (Table 5). It is worth noting that, due to the nature of parent materials (variously grained moraine formations and even-grained formations of ice-dammed lakes landscape), the Mz values in soils of moraine landscape were more diverse than in the soils of ice-dammed lakes landscape.
In the soils of ice-dammed lakes landscape, the mean grain diameter was divergent to some extent. Humus horizons of eroded and colluvial soils had similar values of M—in the range of 0.0162–0.0208. The value of Mz was decreasing down the slope. However, the lowest values were found in the parent material—0.0050 mm (Table 6). In humus horizons in the moraine landscape, grains with diameters typical for medium sand prevail, while ice-dammed lakes landscape grains typical for fine sand dominated.
The standard deviation index in humus horizons of eroded soils in moraine landscape amounted to 3.09 and was decreasing down the slope, reaching the value of 2.65 in the depressions. It suggests that eroded soil material located at the upper slope and colluvial material were very poorly sorted. In analogous soil horizons in ice-dammed landscape, the values of index δ1 were similar—in the range of 3.52–3.69. Such values also indicate very poorly sorted soil material. In addition, the values of the standard deviation index (3.34–3.59) were similar in parent materials of both studied landscapes. In addition, none of the humus horizons showed a δ1 value lower than 1.0, which could indicate a better sorting of the soil material (Table 4 and Table 5).
The average skewness index in humus horizons in moraine landscape ranged from 0.80 in the lower slope and 0.43–0.49 in the upper and middle slope to 0.22 in the depression (Table 5). It proves very fine skewed (US, MS and LS) and fine skewed PSD. Less diverse were the Sk1 indices in the soil catenas of ice-dammed lakes landscape, where the values of skewness ranged from 0.03 in the upper slope to 0.10–0.15 in the middle slope, lower slope and in the depression. This is indicated by the symmetrical and fine skewed PSD in humus horizons in this landscape (Table 6). Parent materials in moraine landscape had very fine skewness (0.43), whereas in ice-dammed lakes landscape they were coarsely skewed (−0.12). Eroded soils in the moraine landscape had mesokurtic (Kg = 1.02 on average) and in the ice-dammed landscape platykurtic (Kg = 0.81 on average) granulometric distribution (Table 5 and Table 6).
In soils of the middle slope, lower slope and in the depression, in the moraine landscape, the Kg value decreased to an average value of 0.94–0.80 and showed a mesokurtic and platykurtic distribution. On the other hand, in the soils of ice-dammed lakes landscape, kurtosis showed average values of 0.81–0.84, which indicates a platykurtic distribution. Parent materials in both landscapes showed platykurtic distribution or were at a borderline of mesokurtic distribution. Considering the average values of Kg, studied soils had mainly flattened and less often normal distribution of grain size and clear bimodality. Unimodal particle size distribution was found only in eroded soil in the moraine landscape. The above was also confirmed by the analysis presented in Figure 3. Eroded soil material and colluvial deposits in the young glacial landscape show clear bimodality. However, enrichment in fine silt fractions and scarcity of fine sand were observed in colluvial deposits (Figure 3A). For analogous soil horizons in the ice-dammed lakes landscape, a bimodal PSD was also observed, but was not as pronounced as in the moraine landscape (Figure 3B). Such a distribution of grain size curves is recognized as typical for colluvial deposits, the accumulation of which is associated with anthropogenic denudation [3,8,48]. Soil material moving down the slope is directly (e.g., as a result of plowing) and indirectly homogenized and shows no signs of sorting nor clear enrichment in finer fractions [1,4,30,48]
In order to determine genetic homogeneity or heterogeneity of soil material in humus horizons and parent materials, granulometric indices were calculated according to the assumptions of Kowalkowski and Prusinkiewicz [28]. These indices show quantitative relations between sand and silt subfractions. The soil materials, which accumulated in a homogenous sedimentological environment, have similar values of calculated indices, whereas the diversity in the calculated indices suggests a heterogeneous sedimentological environment (Table 7 and Table 8).
Granulometric indices had various values in the moraine landscape, reflecting the heterogeneity of soil material. Lower values were reported for the ice-dammed lakes landscape, reflecting the homogeneity of soil material (Table 7 and Table 8). Values of granulometric index A in humus horizons amounted to 3.7–4.5 (moraine landscape) and 0.3–0.7 (ice-dammed landscape). It clearly indicated that the studied soils had similar amounts of 0.5–0.1 mm subfraction. Soil humus horizons in ice-dammed lakes landscape were highly homogenous considering the mentioned subfraction. In parent materials of studied soils, the mentioned index was similar (Table 7 and Table 8). In humus horizons in moraine landscape higher values of calculated indices were found, B (9.0–12.4), C (6.0–8.2), D (5.3–8.0) and E (17.6–21.8), than in the analogous soil horizons in ice-dammed lakes landscape: B-D (0.7–2.8) and E (5.9–10.1). It clearly indicates greater heterogeneity of soil material in moraine landscape and prevalence of medium and coarse sand, which was proven by the ranges of granulometric indices. The soil humus horizons in ice-dammed lakes landscape had homogenous PSD considering sand subfractions and coarse silt. Towever, the values of the E index suggest the prevalence of coarse silt in relation to medium, fine and very fine sand.
Parent material had similar values of granulometric indices in both studied landscapes (Table 7 and Table 8), with higher homogeneity in the ice-dammed landscape. Similar values of analysed indices indicate the original primary homogeneity of the soil parent material.
Based on soil PSD in humus horizons at different slope positions and parent materials, the Ward’s method of clustering was used to present similarities in the PSD between all 147 soil horizons of 58 soil profiles belonging to two types of landscapes (Figure 4). The most distinct differences were observed between humus horizons located at the upper slope in the moraine landscape and the parent materials in the ice-dammed landscape. Cluster 1 groups soils occurring in moraine landscapes. Cluster 2 aggregated soils of the ice-dammed landscape.
Within cluster 1, which grouped only moraine soils, two subgroups were identified: soils at the upper slope (MUS), middle slope (MMS) and parent materials of middle slope soils (MPM) are the first subgroup, and soils at the lower slope and in the depression are the second subgroup—this confirms our results described above, that the position on the slope, and the processes occurring at the slope, affect the PSD.
Similar relations were stated for the ice-dammed lakes landscape (cluster 2), where three subgroups were identified: (i) soils at the lower slope (I-DLS) and in depression (I-DD), (ii) soils at the upper slope (I-DUS) and middle slope (I-DMS) and (iii) parent material (I-DPM), which was distinct from other soil samples in terms of PSD.
4. Conclusions
- This research confirmed the influence of soil agricultural use on particle size distribution in moraine and ice-dammed lakes landscapes. In soil humus horizons in moraine landscape, the average content of coarse and fine silt was increasing from the upper slope towards the depression. The texture of upper/middle slope soils differed significantly from the soils in the depression. These differences did not occur in the soils of ice-dammed lakes landscape.
- Erosional processes resulted in decreasing grain diameter in humus horizons down the slope in both landscapes and did not influence the rate of the sorting of grains.
- Based on granulometric indices, soil PSD in moraine landscape was heterogenous, whereas in the landscape of ice-dammed lakes origin it was homogenous. The PSD in studied soils was similar only among the soils within one type of landscape.
- The soils in the landscape of ice-dammed lakes origin, despite agricultural use, are more resistant to changes in PSD during erosion.
Author Contributions
Conceptualization, P.S., S.S. and M.O.; methodology, P.S., S.S., M.O. and A.B.; software, P.S., S.S. and B.K.; validation, P.S., S.S. and B.K.; formal analysis, P.S., S.S., M.O. and A.B.; investigation, P.S., S.S., M.O., B.K. and A.B.; resources, P.S., S.S. and M.O.; data curation, P.S., S.S. and B.K.; writing—original draft preparation, P.S., S.S., M.O. and B.K.; writing—review and editing, P.S., S.S., M.O. and B.K.; visualization, P.S. and B.K.; supervision, P.S., S.S., M.O., B.K. and A.B.; All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding
University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry, Department of Soil Science and Microbiology (grant No. 30.610.005-110).
Data Availability Statement
Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Figure 1.
Location of the soil catenas.
Figure 2.
Types of young glacial landscapes: (A)—moraine, (B)—ice-dammed lakes.
Figure 3.
Histogram of PSD in humus horizons and parent materials in moraine (A) and ice-dammed lakes (B) landscapes. Explanations: US—upper slope, MD—middle slope, LM—lower slope, D—depression, PM—parent material; g—gravel, vcos—very coarse sand, cos—coarse sand, ms—medium sand, fs—fine sand, vfs—very fine sand, cosi—coarse silt, fsi—fine silt, c—clay.
Figure 3.
Histogram of PSD in humus horizons and parent materials in moraine (A) and ice-dammed lakes (B) landscapes. Explanations: US—upper slope, MD—middle slope, LM—lower slope, D—depression, PM—parent material; g—gravel, vcos—very coarse sand, cos—coarse sand, ms—medium sand, fs—fine sand, vfs—very fine sand, cosi—coarse silt, fsi—fine silt, c—clay.
Figure 4.
Clustering of soil PSD in humus horizons and parent material at different slope positions in moraine and ice-dammed lakes landscapes. Explanations were provided in the paragraph above.
Figure 4.
Clustering of soil PSD in humus horizons and parent material at different slope positions in moraine and ice-dammed lakes landscapes. Explanations were provided in the paragraph above.
Table 1.
Coordinates, elevation and slope of soil catenas.
| Landscape Type | Catena | Coordinates (WGS 84) | Elevation (m a.s.l.) | Slope (%) | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Average | Upper | Middle | Lower | Depression | ||||
| Moraine | Baranowo | 53°49′01.2″ N 21°26′04.5″ E | 136.9 | 12.2 | 11.4 | 19.2 | 14.2 | 3.6 |
| Linowo | 53°39′25.7″ N 20°57′16.0″ E | 153.0 | 7.6 | 2.4 | 13.6 | 7.6 | 0.6 | |
| Nawiady | 53°42′48.8″ N 21°18′08.1″ E | 150.2 | 10.2 | 1.8 | 12.1 | 5.0 | 1.7 | |
| Orzechowo | 53°58′33.8″ N 20°31′49.9″ E | 119.1 | 4.7 | 7.8 | 6.3 | 9.6 | 0.5 | |
| Pierwągi | 54°00′57.7″ N 20°49′58.8″ E | 158.2 | 7.5 | 1.7 | 12.3 | 7.2 | 0.5 | |
| Równina Górna | 54°10′36.0″ N 21°14′43.3″ E | 61.6 | 5.6 | 1.1 | 6.1 | 4.6 | 0.4 | |
| Smolajny | 54°01′14.9″ N 20°24′14.3″ E | 77.3 | 5.9 | 5.8 | 4.6 | 4.8 | 0.4 | |
| Studnica | 53°58′56.1″ N 20°38′56.4″ E | 108.2 | 5.3 | 7.6 | 6.2 | 5.7 | 0.8 | |
| Tomaszkowo 1 | 53°42′45.3″ N 20°26′10.3″ E | 137.8 | 15.2 | 8.0 | 19.5 | 24.6 | 8.0 | |
| Tomaszkowo 2 | 53°42′50.2″ N 20°26′03.0″ E | 132.6 | 3.8 | 3.6 | 5.8 | 5.1 | 0.3 | |
| Ustnik | 53°59′41.6″ N 20°41′59.7″ E | 129.8 | 6.0 | 4.8 | 11.5 | 7.7 | 0.7 | |
| Wągsty | 54°00′65.3″ N 20°52′26.7″ E | 148.0 | 15.5 | 7.1 | 24.1 | 13.4 | 0.1 | |
| Ice-dammed lakes | Silginy | 54°15′06.0″ N 21°14′03.7″ E | 41.8 | 2.6 | 1.3 | 4.6 | 5.3 | 0.7 |
| Troksy | 54°03′16.4″ N 21°04′22.0″ E | 73.3 | 5.1 | 3.7 | 6.1 | 4.6 | 0.4 | |
Table 2.
Number of soil samples assigned to soil texture classes according to USDA (S–sand, LS–loamy sand, SL—sandy loam, SCL—sandy clay loam, L—loam, CL—clay loam, SiCL—silty clay loam, SiL—silt loam, C—clay) in studied landscapes, regarding the soil position on the slope (US—upper slope, MD—middle slope, LM—lower slope, D—depression, PM—parent material).
Table 2.
Number of soil samples assigned to soil texture classes according to USDA (S–sand, LS–loamy sand, SL—sandy loam, SCL—sandy clay loam, L—loam, CL—clay loam, SiCL—silty clay loam, SiL—silt loam, C—clay) in studied landscapes, regarding the soil position on the slope (US—upper slope, MD—middle slope, LM—lower slope, D—depression, PM—parent material).
| Landscape Type | Slope Position | No of Samples | S | LS | SL | SCL | L | CL | SiCL | SiL | C |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Moraine | US | 12 | 1 | - | 9 | - | 1 | - | 1 | - | - |
| MS | 37 | 2 | 7 | 21 | - | 3 | 2 | 1 | 2 | - | |
| LS | 21 | - | 1 | 10 | 1 | 4 | - | - | 4 | 1 | |
| D | 17 | - | - | 5 | - | 5 | - | - | 7 | - | |
| PM | 21 | 2 | 11 | 5 | - | - | - | 2 | 1 | - | |
| Ice-dammed lakes | US | 4 | - | - | - | - | 3 | 1 | - | - | - |
| MS | 5 | - | - | - | - | 4 | 1 | - | - | - | |
| LS | 10 | - | - | - | - | 8 | 1 | - | - | 1 | |
| D | 8 | - | - | - | - | 5 | 3 | - | - | - | |
| PM | 12 | - | - | 1 | 1 | 3 | 3 | 1 | - | 1 |
Table 3.
Average amounts of soil fractions in humus horizons and parent material in moraine landscape, regarding the soil position at the slope.
Table 3.
Average amounts of soil fractions in humus horizons and parent material in moraine landscape, regarding the soil position at the slope.
| Soil Fractions /Subfractions | Value | US (1) | MS (2) | LS (3) | D (4) | PM (5) | Significant Differences α = 0.05 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| g | X | 0.7 | 0.6 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0.9 | 1 > 3, 4 |
| SD | 0.84 | 1.75 | 0.29 | 0.14 | 3.06 | ||
| CV | 127.33 | 277.40 | 193.14 | 147.75 | 333.42 | ||
| vcos | X | 2.3 | 1.3 | 1.3 | 0.5 | 2.5 | 1 > 4 |
| SD | 1.92 | 1.38 | 1.52 | 0.87 | 2.84 | 2 > 4; 2 < 5; 4 < 5 | |
| CV | 82.40 | 103.86 | 118.32 | 185.83 | 112.50 | ||
| cos | X | 3.3 | 3.6 | 2.4 | 2.4 | 3.9 | 2 > 3, 4 |
| SD | 1.86 | 2.10 | 1.72 | 1.22 | 3.40 | ||
| CV | 57.38 | 58.45 | 72.11 | 51.92 | 87.19 | ||
| ms | X | 8.7 | 9.8 | 6.3 | 5.9 | 9.0 | 1 > 4 |
| SD | 3.92 | 5.66 | 3.75 | 2.93 | 6.61 | 2 > 3, 4 | |
| CV | 45.18 | 57.70 | 59.15 | 49.24 | 73.88 | ||
| fs | X | 31.8 | 30.2 | 24.0 | 21.9 | 26.6 | 1 > 4; 2 > 4 |
| SD | 12.08 | 11.96 | 13.15 | 11.83 | 11.92 | ||
| CV | 38.06 | 39.63 | 54.90 | 54.07 | 44.79 | ||
| vfs | X | 16.1 | 15.4 | 14.6 | 14.1 | 14.3 | |
| SD | 6.30 | 4.81 | 3.75 | 4.51 | 6.62 | ||
| CV | 39.19 | 31.36 | 25.64 | 31.96 | 46.19 | ||
| cosi | X | 9.7 | 11.2 | 13.9 | 17.7 | 9.4 | 1 < 3, 4 |
| SD | 4.01 | 3.72 | 6.15 | 5.70 | 3.87 | 2 < 3, 4; 3 > 5; 4 > 5 | |
| CV | 41.46 | 33.17 | 44.21 | 32.30 | 41.02 | ||
| fsi | X | 17.8 | 20.6 | 25.1 | 28.8 | 18.6 | 1 < 3, 2 < 3 |
| SD | 8.55 | 11.94 | 13.82 | 10.74 | 11.80 | 3 > 5 | |
| CV | 47.93 | 57.99 | 55.08 | 37.33 | 63.36 | ||
| c | X | 12.1 | 8.2 | 12.9 | 9.1 | 16.0 | |
| SD | 9.22 | 7.37 | 9.36 | 6.79 | 10.10 | 2 < 3, 5; 4 < 5 | |
| CV | 76.30 | 90.33 | 72.77 | 74.92 | 63.33 |
Explanations: see Table 2 and Section 2.1, X—mean, SD—standard deviation, CV—coefficient of variance.
Table 4.
Average amounts of soil fractions in humus horizons and parent materials in ice-dammed lakes landscape, regarding the soil position at the slope.
Table 4.
Average amounts of soil fractions in humus horizons and parent materials in ice-dammed lakes landscape, regarding the soil position at the slope.
| Soil Fractions /Subfractions | Value | US (1) | MS (2) | LS (3) | D (4) | PM (5) | Significant Differences α = 0.05 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| g | X | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.00 | 0.0 | |
| SD | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | ||
| CV | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | ||
| vcos | X | 0.3 | 0.4 | 0.2 | 0.4 | 0.0 | 2 > 5, 4 > 5 |
| SD | 0.50 | 0.55 | 0.42 | 0.52 | 0.00 | ||
| CV | 200.00 | 136.93 | 210.82 | 138.01 | 0.00 | ||
| cos | X | 5.8 | 4.0 | 3,6 | 4.8 | 2.6 | 1 > 3, 5; 4 > 5 |
| SD | 2.06 | 2.00 | 1.51 | 2.05 | 2.19 | ||
| CV | 35.85 | 50.00 | 41.82 | 43.22 | 84.90 | ||
| ms | X | 14.5 | 15.8 | 10.7 | 12.1 | 5.2 | 1 > 5; 2 > 5; 3 > 5; 4 > 5 |
| SD | 5.80 | 3.70 | 4.90 | 6.10 | 4.76 | ||
| CV | 40.02 | 23.43 | 45.80 | 50.35 | 92.21 | ||
| fs | X | 3.8 | 5.00 | 6.4 | 6.0 | 3.8 | 1 < 3; 3 > 5; 4 > 5 |
| SD | 0.96 | 1.00 | 2.22 | 2.39 | 1.86 | ||
| CV | 25.53 | 20.00 | 34.70 | 39.84 | 49.73 | ||
| vfs | X | 13.0 | 13.2 | 13.5 | 13.8 | 9.3 | 3 > 5; 4 > 5 |
| SD | 2.58 | 0.84 | 2.80 | 2.87 | 4.91 | ||
| CV | 19.86 | 6.34 | 20.73 | 20.84 | 52.56 | ||
| cosi | X | 12.8 | 13.4 | 14.6 | 13.6 | 10.4 | |
| SD | 2.63 | 0.89 | 2.67 | 2.88 | 7.59 | ||
| CV | 20.63 | 6.67 | 18.32 | 21.10 | 72.82 | ||
| fsi | X | 28.8 | 25.4 | 26.9 | 27.1 | 31.0 | |
| SD | 4.93 | 1.24 | 4.58 | 6.06 | 8.57 | ||
| CV | 17.15 | 4.89 | 17.03 | 22.33 | 27.65 | ||
| c | X | 21.3 | 22.8 | 24.1 | 22.3 | 37.8 | 1 < 5; 2 < 5; 3 < 5; 4 < 5 |
| SD | 5.91 | 3.70 | 7.87 | 6.90 | 13.99 | ||
| CV | 27.81 | 16.23 | 32.64 | 31.02 | 37.05 |
Explanations: see Table 2 and Section 2.1, X—mean, SD—standard deviation, CV—coefficient of variance.
Table 5.
Sedimentological indices in humus horizons and parent materials in moraine landscape, regarding the soil position at the slope.
Table 5.
Sedimentological indices in humus horizons and parent materials in moraine landscape, regarding the soil position at the slope.
| Slope Position | Mz | δ1 | Sk1 | Kg |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| mm | phi | |||
| US | 0.0397 * 0.0056–0.1173 ** | 3.09 1.41–4.17 | 0.49 −0.16–0.60 | 1.02 0.88–1.70 |
| MS | 0.0446 0.0041–0.2194 | 2.76 1.65–3.42 | 0.43 −0.27–0.58 | 0.94 0.71–1.35 |
| LS | 0.0280 0.0017–0.1392 | 2.91 1.08–6.43 | 0.80 −0.30–1.83 | 0.80 0.75–4.00 |
| D | 0.0283 0.0083–0.0736 | 2.65 1.66–2.04 | 0.22 −0.30–0.56 | 0.81 0.71–1.35 |
| PM | 0.0333 0.0002–0.1276 | 3.34 0.51–4.72 | 0.43 −3.45–0.63 | 0.84 0.20–2.41 |
Explanations: see Table 2 and Section 2.2, * mean, ** range.
Table 6.
Sedimentological indices in humus horizons and parent material in ice-dammed lakes landscape, regarding the soil position at the slope.
Table 6.
Sedimentological indices in humus horizons and parent material in ice-dammed lakes landscape, regarding the soil position at the slope.
| Slope Position | Mz | δ1 | Sk1 | Kg |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| mm | phi | |||
| US | 0.0208 * 0.0098–0.0341 ** | 3.52 3.06–3.96 | 0.03 0.01–0.19 | 0.81 0.65–1.16 |
| MS | 0.0199 0.0082–0.0282 | 3.69 3.27–5.23 | 0.15 −0.07–0.38 | 0.83 −2.32–0.83 |
| LS | 0.0162 0.0048–0.2042 | 3.53 1.47–3.68 | 0.10 −0.09–0.37 | 0.84 0.72–0.88 |
| D | 0.0192 0.0068–0.3350 | 3.57 2.95–4.01 | 0.10 −0.09–0.37 | 0.84 0.72–0.88 |
| PM | 0.0050 0.0010–0.0170 | 3.59 2.80–16.49 | −0.12 −0.27–0.35 | 0.90 0.98–1.35 |
Explanations: see Table 2 and Section 2.2, * mean, ** range.
Table 7.
Granulometric indices in humus horizons and parent materials in moraine landscape, regarding the soil position at the slope.
Table 7.
Granulometric indices in humus horizons and parent materials in moraine landscape, regarding the soil position at the slope.
| Slope position | A | B | C | D | E |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| US | 4.0 * 1.3–7.8 ** | 12.4 3.6–41.0 | 6.0 2.4–10.5 | 5.3 1.9–8.2 | 21.8 7.8–64.0 |
| MS | 3.6 1.3–10.0 | 11.0 0.0–44.0 | 6.1 2.2–15.0 | 5.9 1.6–25.0 | 20.1 0.0–79.0 |
| LS | 4.5 1.5–16.0 | 9.0 0.0–22.0 | 8.2 2.5–4.3 | 9.3 1.9–35.0 | 17.6 0.0–40.0 |
| D | 4.1 1.4–9.3 | 9.4 0.0–42.0 | 7.3 3.2–17.0 | 8.0 3.2–18.7 | 18.4 0.0–63.0 |
| PM | 3.7 1.0–8.8 | 9.6 0.0–34.0 | 6.2 1.5–12.8 | 5.8 1.1–12.0 | 18.0 0.0–54.0 |
Explanations: see Table 2 and Section 2.2, * mean, ** range.
Table 8.
Granulometric indices in humus horizons and parent materials in ice-dammed lakes landscape, regarding the soil position at the slope.
Table 8.
Granulometric indices in humus horizons and parent materials in ice-dammed lakes landscape, regarding the soil position at the slope.
| Slope position | A | B | C | D | E |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| US | 0.3 * 0.2–0.6 ** | 0.7 0.4–1.0 | 1.3 0.7–2.1 | 1.6 0.9–2.3 | 5.9 4.7–8.3 |
| MS | 0.3 0.2–0.5 | 1.6 0.6–3.0 | 1.2 0.9–1.7 | 1.7 1.2–2.5 | 10.1 5.3–15.0 |
| LS | 0.7 0.2–1.4 | 2.0 0.6–3.0 | 2.2 0.9–4.2 | 2.8 1.4–4.6 | 9.2 5.9–13.5 |
| D | 0.7 0.2–1.7 | 1.6 0.6–3.0 | 2.3 0.9–5.3 | 2.8 1.3–6.8 | 7.5 5.2–11.3 |
| PM | 1.4 0.2–2.7 | 1.3 0.0–5.0 | 4.4 0.6–12.0 | 5.4 0.6–20.0 | 7.3 0.0–25.0 |
Explanations: see Table 2 and Section 2.2, * mean, ** range.
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Sowiński, P.; Smólczyński, S.; Orzechowski, M.; Kalisz, B.; Bieniek, A. Effect of Soil Agricultural Use on Particle-Size Distribution in Young Glacial Landscape Slopes. Agriculture 2023, 13, 584. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture13030584
AMA Style
Sowiński P, Smólczyński S, Orzechowski M, Kalisz B, Bieniek A. Effect of Soil Agricultural Use on Particle-Size Distribution in Young Glacial Landscape Slopes. Agriculture. 2023; 13(3):584. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture13030584
Chicago/Turabian StyleSowiński, Paweł, Sławomir Smólczyński, Mirosław Orzechowski, Barbara Kalisz, and Arkadiusz Bieniek. 2023. "Effect of Soil Agricultural Use on Particle-Size Distribution in Young Glacial Landscape Slopes" Agriculture 13, no. 3: 584. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture13030584
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