A Century of Vitamin E: Early Milestones and Future Directions in Animal Nutrition
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Early Discoveries and Understanding of Vitamin E
3. Vitamin E’s Chemical Structure and Biological Activity
4. The Discovery of Vitamin E’s Unique Physiological Function as Chain-Breaking Antioxidant and the Antioxidant Network
5. The Synergy of Vitamin E, Vitamin C, and Selenium
6. The Evolution of Vitamin E Production: From Natural Sources to Synthetic Pathways and Standardized Potency Units
7. Early Experiments on Vitamin E and Its Effects on Animal Health
8. Current Status and Future Research of Vitamin E in Animal Nutrition
9. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Active Substance | Unit | Conversion Factors of Vitamin E Forms to Active Substance | |
---|---|---|---|
Tocopherol | mg | 1 mg dl-α-tocopheryl acetate | = 1 IU |
Bioequivalence of various tocopherols | |||
1 mg d-α-tocopherol | = 1.49 IU | ||
1 mg dl-α-tocopherol | = 1.10 IU | ||
1 mg dl-α-tocopheryl acetate | = 1.00 IU | ||
1 mg dl-β-tocopherol | = 0.33 IU | ||
1 mg dl-δ-tocopherol | = 0.25 IU | ||
1 mg dl-γ-tocopherol | = 0.01 IU |
Feedstuff | mg/kg | Reference |
---|---|---|
Corn | 18.7, 22.0 | [72,73] |
Wheat | 7.3, 13.0 | [72,73] |
Wheat bran | 19.8 | [73] |
Soybean meal | 2.4, 2.5, 3.4 | [72,73,74] |
Rapeseed meal | 8.7, 13.0 | [73,74,75] |
Sunflower seed meal | 1 | [73] |
Corn silage | 4.5, 13.0 | [76,77] |
Hay | 4 | [76] |
Fresh grass | 30, 36 | [78,79] |
Grass clover silage | 39 | [80,81] |
Form | Relative Efficiency |
---|---|
α-tocopherol | 100% |
β-tocopherol | 15–40% |
γ-tocopherol | 1–20% |
δ-tocopherol | 1% |
α-tocotrienol | 15–30% |
β-tocotrienol | 1–5% |
γ-tocotrienol | 1% |
δ-tocotrienol | 1% |
Disorder | Animal Model | Compromised Organ/Tissue | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
Immune deficiency | Chick, pig | Mononuclear phagocyte system | [89,90] |
Myopathic disorders | Rabbit, duck, lamb, calf, turkey, chicken | Heart, skeletal muscles, gizzard | [91,92,93] |
Reproductive dysfunction | |||
embryonic apoptosis | Hen, turkey, cow | Embryonic circulatory system | [94] |
infertility (male) | Rooster, rabbit | Testes | [95] |
Kidney, pancreas, liver, brain, blood | |||
necrobiosis | Pig | Liver | [94] |
erythrocyte hemolysis | Chick, calf | Red blood cells | [96] |
hypoproteinemia | Chick, turkey | Ricin | [94] |
cerebral softening | Chick, duckling | Encephalon | [82] |
hemorrhagic diathesis | Chick, turkey | Vascular system | [94] |
nephrosis | Mink, rat | Renal tubular | [97] |
yellow fat disease | Pig | Adipose tissue | [98] |
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Shastak, Y.; Obermueller-Jevic, U.; Pelletier, W. A Century of Vitamin E: Early Milestones and Future Directions in Animal Nutrition. Agriculture 2023, 13, 1526. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture13081526
Shastak Y, Obermueller-Jevic U, Pelletier W. A Century of Vitamin E: Early Milestones and Future Directions in Animal Nutrition. Agriculture. 2023; 13(8):1526. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture13081526
Chicago/Turabian StyleShastak, Yauheni, Ute Obermueller-Jevic, and Wolf Pelletier. 2023. "A Century of Vitamin E: Early Milestones and Future Directions in Animal Nutrition" Agriculture 13, no. 8: 1526. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture13081526