Tourists’ Preferences for Traditional Food Products as Indicators of the Market Potential of Underutilised Species in Cambodia

Abstract

Understanding tourists’ perceptions and appreciation of traditional food products (TFPs) is crucial for developing effective marketing and development strategies for poor economies with tourism potential, such as Cambodia. Lots of TFPs are derived from underutilised plant species, which are generally undervalued in economic terms. The aim of the study was to analyse tourists’ familiarity with both conventional (i.e., wider known and used) and underutilised Cambodian TFPs. A total of 1271 international tourists were interviewed in the country’s three most visited regions. A pairwise matrix was used to document tourists’ preferences, χ² test to determine associations between respondents’ preferences and socio-demographic characteristics, a bivariate probit model to examine factors influencing these attitudes, and an ordered probit model to analyse factors influencing willingness-to-pay for TFPs. A total of 923 respondents (72.6%) were familiar with at least one TFP. Kampot pepper, palm sugar and Rumduol rice were the best-known conventional TFPs, while Maprang, Kramsang and Ma-om were the better-known underutilised TFPs. Willingness-to-buy a TFP increased with prior knowledge of and familiarity with TFPs, education, religion and available budget. Low awareness, a short stay in Cambodia and possible health problems associated with their use were the main barriers to trying a TFP. Greater awareness, better organised distribution, improved packaging and labelling will be needed to increase TFP success among tourists, especially of those defined as underutilised.

1. Introduction

It has been documented that a lot of the enjoyment of travelling comes from trying out local foods [1,2,3,4]. Food thus not only fulfils basic needs but can also be considered a major tourist attraction, especially in certain exotic destinations such as rum or cigars in Caribbean islands, traditional noodle soup ramen in Japan, food from street markets in Thailand or Vietnam or wine and cheese in Italy or France. Furthermore, tourist consumption of and expenditure on traditional foods are an important driver in developing tourism services and contributes to rural economies and agriculture development. Therefore, supporting these products’ development can be regarded an efficient strategy for maximising returns from tourism. Additionally, the consumption of local ingredients and processed foods minimises imports and leakage of tourism revenues from the local economy. Finally, consumption of traditional food products can prolong the stay of tourists in their destinations and can consequently bring higher expenditures on food, stay, enjoyment, etc. [5,6,7].

Despite relative success in tourism development, several problems, such as prevalence of low-cost backpacking tours, low return rates, inadequate infrastructure development, competition with neighbouring and touristically more developed countries and lack of diversification in tourism products, including traditional food systems, persist. These limitations are rarely studied or discussed in scientific literature and often overlooked by national policies. As a result, they hamper the development of innovative strategies that would focus on traditional food and tourism promotion that could contribute to reginal development planning [8,9,10]. Thus, creating tailor-made market strategies is crucial to increasing local food products’ marketability, availability and supply. Information, education, communication and social marketing have been found to be indispensable elements for successful local food development programmes. Understanding tourists’ perceptions of and preferences for traditional food products (TFPs) is crucial for defining such strategies. The standard scientific approach to finding out how tourists relate to food is to study their food preferences or choices using questionnaire surveys [11]. In addition, respondents’ perceptions and preferences have previously been proposed as relevant parameters in tourism market analysis [12].

Plants are important sources of food for the world’s population, and many species can have an exceptionally high market value because of their nutritional properties [13]. The rise in public interest in nutrition and healthy eating has recently contributed to an increased demand for traditional foods, including those of plant origin. Consequently, food enterprises have come to recognise a potential profit from increased demand for traditional foods [14]. However, TFP marketing tends to focus more on domestic markets due to lower administrative barriers and the often-high complexity of international marketing chains. Nevertheless, there is a growing demand for traditional foods from consumers, especially in high-income countries, which has contributed to the introduction of a whole range of exotic products into the international market [15]. For example, amaranth (Amaranthus spp.) has been consumed as a staple throughout the history of the Inca, Maya and Aztec civilisations in South and Central America. A worldwide interest in amaranth appeared in the 1980s when the United States National Academy of Sciences performed research on the grain and documented its high nutritional value and agronomic potential [16]. Many TFPs are prepared from underutilised food crops, which are plant species that have been traditionally used as foods by local communities but are currently less important than the more common staple crops and agricultural commodities in terms of global production and value. Besides having inadequate technological properties (e.g., poor shelf life) and little-known potential (e.g., nutritional value and health benefits), reputational problems (e.g., being considered as famine or poor people’s food, inappropriate handling, storage and poor hygiene) and low consumer awareness of their properties are the main constraints to their market success. Efficient marketing strategies overcoming reputational barriers and promoting beneficial properties of underutilised crops are therefore needed for strengthening TFPs market systems [17]. However, the detailed knowledge of perceptions and preferences of potential customers of TFPs, which is important for the development of an efficient marketing strategy for these products, is still lacking.

The hypothesis here is that TFPs, based on local plant products and traditional culinary systems, represent a trade-off for a profitable interaction between tourism and rural development efforts. This research builds upon other research findings that tourists have become an important factor influencing local markets and gastronomy whereby their motivations to try local cuisine might lead to more frequent or even regular visits to their favourite destinations.

Therefore, tourists’ perceptions and preferences of ten representative Cambodian TFPs were investigated to identify the market potential of these underutilised crops and provide a baseline for current and future tourism and regional development in Cambodia. To fulfil the stated aims, the following questions were raised: Who are typical buyers of local TFPs? How are tourists informed about the properties and availability of TFPs? What are the most common reasons for not trying a local TFP? What are the factors that influence tourists’ spending on local TFP? Providing answers to these questions will allow relevant stakeholders such as policymakers, tourism managers and food producers, to formulate and implement suitable integrated strategies to promote the development of both tourism and agriculture.

2. Methodology

2.1. Research Conceptualisation and Characterisation of Selected TFPs

Cambodia is situated in southeast Asia and is located on the coast of the South China Sea. Most of its area (181,035 km²) consists of low-lying plains in the central part, surrounded by mountains (the highest point reaches 1813 m above sea level). The country is therefore blessed with the diversity of its natural environment and farming systems. According to Köppen’s climate classification, Cambodia has a predominantly tropical savannah (Aw) and tropical monsoon (Am) climate, governed by tropical monsoon rains, which bring rainfall (May–October) followed by a dry season (November–April). The total annual precipitation varies between 1400 and 2000 mm, with the central plains tending to be drier than the mountains and coastal areas (with annual precipitation exceeding 3000 mm). The geographical distribution of rainfall and the alternation of dry and rainy seasons also affect relative humidity, which drops to 65% in January and February and peaks (up to 90%) in September and August. The richness of Cambodia’s natural and cultural heritage makes it a popular tourist destination. In addition to nature and visits to the Angkor Wat palace complex, one can also discover local customs and cuisine.

According to the UN, Cambodia is listed as one of the world’s 46 least developed countries (LDCs). However, according to the World Bank, the country’s economy is growing at a relatively fast and steady rate of around 6–7% per annum (2010–2020) and is currently returning to similar levels after a slight dip due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Manufacturing accounts for nearly 20% of the economy, similar to subsistence agriculture; total industrial production contributes 37% and is still rising. The latter development is leading to a shift in labour force away from agriculture towards higher value-added products and linkages with other sectors of the national economy, including the food industry and agrotourism. Over the last two decades, tourism has become one of the most important sectors of Cambodia’s economy. More than 6.5 million tourists visited the country in 2019. According to the tourism statistics report of the Ministry of Tourism of Cambodia, the trend is expected to further increase to 7–11 million in the coming years, despite the COVID-19 pandemic, and contribute by a lion’s share to gross national product [18,19]. Cambodia, like other tourist destinations in southeast Asia, offers an array of different traditional foods, some of which also became important products in the international market. Kampot pepper, a cultivar of Piper nigrum grown and produced in Kampot Province, may serve as a good example. This particular variety gained international recognition due to its unique flavour and aroma that distinguish it from other types of peppercorns. Moreover, Kampot pepper gained Protected Geographical Indication in 2016 from the EU [20] and has a promising niche market recognised by the EU, Thailand and Vietnam. Tourists have been shown to be very interested in purchasing Kampot pepper products. They buy them either in local markets or directly at farms in Kampot province. However, the potential of other traditional Cambodian food products to contribute to the local economy following tourist interest has not yet been identified.

Therefore, experts on food crops, tropical agriculture and rural development from the Czech University of Life Sciences Prague (CZU) in Czechia and the Royal University of Agriculture (RUA) in Cambodia, together with representatives of local food producers, selected a number of key TFPs for a tourist survey. These products were subsequently divided into two equally sized groups: conventional and underutilised. The basic criterion for this division was based on the definition of neglected and underutilised species (NUS) [21]. Conventional TFPs are derived from economically important crop species currently grown for the market or subsistence, whereas underutilised TFPs are indigenous plant species that are sourced and used locally. Nevertheless, the latter have great potential to contribute to food security, nutrition and health, and provide future economic and environmental benefits, even though their potential remains underexploited [22,23,24].

Table 1. Traditional Cambodian plant food products used in the study (in alphabetic order).

Traditional Food Product	Characterisation	Product Category
Cambodian red wine	Wine from grapes (fruits of Vitis vinifera L.) grown in certain Cambodian regions.	C
Kampot pepper	Green, black, red and white peppercorns of black pepper (Piper nigrum L.) grown and produced in Kampot Province. Red peppercorns are especially rare due to their unique processing method. Red fully ripened berries are picked, then blanched, sun-dried and sorted through numerous selective sessions to obtain only a few exceptional corns per harvest.	C
Kramsang	Green fruit of the wood apple tree [Citrus lucida (Scheff.) Mabb.] used as a vegetable.	U
Ma-om	Rice paddy herb [Limnophila aromatica (Lam.) Merr.] used as a flavouring agent and condiment in traditional Cambodian soup dishes.	U
Maprang	The orange or yellow fruit of the mango plum (Bouea macrophylla Griff.) resembling a mango with a sweet-sour flavour and a slight turpentine odour.	U
Palm sugar	Sweetener derived from palmyra palm (Borassus flabellifer L.).	C
Rumduol rice	Jasmine-like fragrant Cambodian rice cultivar (Oryza sativa ‘Phka Rumduol’).	C
Samraong	A beverage made from the Malva nut tree [Scaphium affine (Mast.) Pierre] with seeds soaked in water yielding “Malva nut juice”, occasionally flavoured with pandan, cinnamon, honey or sugar.	U
Sraa sor	Alcoholic liquor made from rice (Oryza sativa L.).	C
Wild grape wine	A red wine made from wild grapes (fruits of Ampelocissus martini Planch.) harvested from plants growing in the forest.	U

Note: C = conventional, U = underutilised.

provides a detailed presentation of the TFPs used in this study.

Based on the concept described above, wine was chosen as conventional TFP, as it has become a global component of gastronomy tourism over recent decades [25,26]. There is a similar trend in Cambodia, where wine imports are constantly growing [27]. As a reaction to this situation, wine farms have been established. For example, Prasat Phnom Banon Winery in Battambang Province is currently producing red wine from Shiraz grapes. This winery is promoted in the famous Lonely Planet tourist guide and is officially recognised by the National Committee Council for Agricultural and Rural Development as a One Village One Product (OVOP) to promote its production according to a set of standards to supply both local and international markets and thus support the regional economy.

Pepper from Piper nigrum is one of the most widely used spices worldwide and a highly traded commodity [28,29]. Cambodian Kampot pepper with peppercorns with a unique flavour and delicate aroma was chosen as another conventional TFP. It is very popular with gourmet chefs around the world. This spice species is grown and produced using traditional methods in Kampot Province, which has a specific climate and type of soil, making its fruits flavour distinctly different from other kinds of peppercorns [30,31].

Palm sugar from Borassus flabellifer, a food sweetener known to be rich in vitamins and minerals, is an unrefined product used as an ingredient in both sweet and savoury dishes [32,33]. The sugar palm is Cambodia’s national tree. It is often seen towering over rice fields attracting attention from tourists. Recently, Kampong Speu palm sugar has been acknowledged for its pleasant aroma and light brown hue. It has been registered as EU Protected Geographical Indication 542/2019 to ensure protection against misuse or imitation and guarantee the true origin of the product to customers [34].

Rice (Oryza sativa), together with wheat (Triticum aestivum) and maize (Zea mays), is one of the world’s three leading staples. Together, they directly supply more than 42% of all calories consumed by the entire human population [35,36]. Aromatic rice varieties, such as jasmine and basmati, are trendy worldwide. Similarly, rice is Cambodia’s major staple. Its Phka Rumduol variety is known for its high-quality, fragrant grains with a unique aroma comparable to that of jasmine rice. This variety, which won a prestigious World Best Rice award at the 6th World Rice Conference 2014 held in Phnom Penh, significantly contributes to the development of Cambodia’s rice sector [37,38,39]. Rice liquor, an alcoholic beverage distilled from rice, is traditionally consumed in east and southeast Asia. In Cambodia, the traditional Khmer rice liquor called Sraa sor has become popular among visitors who are frequently taking it home as a typical Cambodian souvenir [40,41].

Kramsang is a citrus fruit whose raw pulp is used as a vegetable and sour-taste ingredient in Cambodian cooking [42]. We chose it as an example of an underutilised TFP. Its fruits are traditionally harvested from village home gardens. They are only available in small quantities in local markets.

Another underutilised Cambodian plant species is a herb with a specific citrus aroma called Ma-om. It is only sold fresh in the markets [43,44] and visitors can taste it in almost every traditional Cambodian soup.

Maprang, a yellow-orange juicy fruit with a sour to sweet light mango-like taste [45], is mainly consumed fresh, or offered as a sweet syrup [46]. The sour jelly obtained from the seeds of Samraong is used to prepare a traditional refreshing beverage, which is drunk as a cooling drink mixed with sugar or various fruit juices [42]. Nowadays, it is commercially produced as a beverage in southeast Asia.

The last species used in our research is a wine produced in Cambodia from fruits harvested from wild forest populations of a species botanically related to common grapes (Vitis vinifera), locally known as Tompeng Baychhou Prey. Wild grape wine is currently produced on a small scale only, e.g., on a local farm in Pursat’s Krakor district.

2.2. Data Collection and Analysis

Data were collected through face-to-face interviews in English using a semi-structured questionnaire with international tourists willing to participate in our survey. Respondents were randomly met mostly at local food markets, in hotel lobbies, restaurants and promenades with a high concentration of visitors. Interviews were conducted in three Cambodian regions most frequently visited by tourists according to Tourism Statistics Report 2017 [47], i.e., the capital town of Phnom Penh, Siem Reap which is well-known as the gateway to Angkor Wat temple ruins of the Khmer Empire and the coastal city of Sihanouk Ville. For the purposes of this research, data collected in the period prior to the COVID-19 pandemic was used because it provides a reasonable picture of tourists’ attitudes towards and awareness of local TFPs and provides a suitable basis for current policy planning in tourism and rural development. The consumer survey was conducted by trained local research assistants who were supervised by CZU, RUA and the non-profit organisation Ecosystem Services and Land Use Research Centre field experts between September and October 2017, and January and March 2018, which are considered to be the best seasons for tourists to visit the country.

The consumer survey was designed to capture a wide range of factors influencing the consumption of local TFPs in tourist destinations, such as knowledge of local food products, motivations to and attributes associated with them and socio-demographic characteristics, including travel behaviour. Therefore, the questionnaire was composed of 14 multiple-choice questions that focused on the following TFP-related domains: attractiveness; willingness to buy; familiarity and reasons to try or not to try; places to purchase; sources of information on local TFPs; length of stay in Cambodia; respondents’ demographic and socio-economic characteristics, namely age, country of origin, gender, educational attainment, marital status, religion and average spending on the products in the survey mix. Pretesting of the questionnaire was done during the first week of the survey in order to assess unambiguity of questions. Close-ended questions were used to collect data on tourists’ familiarity with selected TFPs, whereas more direct, multiple-choice questions (including the “other” option to provide an alternative answer) were used to determine what factors were influencing their decisions. The multiple-choice format of the demographic questions at the end of the survey was used to accurately characterise our respondents and effectively categorise and analyse the factors that may influence respondents’ answers, interests and opinions.

A variety of statistical tools were used to analyse the data. All statistical analyses were conducted using Stata version 18 and Jamovi version 2.3.

Firstly, Pearson’s correlations were used to assess relationships between factors. Analysis of variance and χ² test were applied to determine whether significant relationships (α = 0.05) existed between respondents’ socio-demographic characteristics and their preferences for specific TFPs [11,48,49].

Secondly, the analytical hierarchical process (AHP) model [50] was applied for the analysis of relative tourists’ preferences for TFPs. The AHP model was used to analyse consumer’ preferences for TFP attributes and their levels by eliciting the relative importance through pairwise comparisons [11]. Within the AHP model, tourist preferences were determined based on their decision for relative reasons, considering whether they already knew the product, tasted it, liked it and would want to buy it again. The next step in data analysis was to calculate a normalised matrix through the following steps: summing the values of each column of the pairwise matrix, dividing the values in each column by the sum of the values in each column to get the normalised matrix, and obtaining an average of each row of the normalised matrix by adding the values in a row and dividing by the number of values in that row. The output was a ten by ten pairwise matrix composed of two halves by a diagonal. Values above the diagonal are ratings, and values below are reciprocals. The selection of one alternative from a given set of alternatives is usually done where there are multiple decision criteria involved.

Thirdly, since univariate models ignore the correlation in the error terms of several equations, a bivariate probit model was developed to examine factors influencing knowledge and consumer behaviour towards underutilised and conventional TFPs by tourists in Cambodia. The bivariate probit model is generically defined as:

$$\left\{\begin{array}{c}{\gamma }_1^{*}={x_1^{\prime }\beta }_1+{\epsilon }_1\\ y_2^{*}=x_2^{\prime }{\beta }_2+{\epsilon }_2\end{array}\right.$$

(1)

where ${\gamma }_1^{*}$ and $y_2^{*}$ represent unobserved variables. If ${\gamma }_1^{*}$ > 0, it means that respondents knew underutilised TFPs, otherwise, they did not know them. If $y_2^{*}$ > 0, it means that respondents knew conventional TFPs, otherwise, they did not know them. Then, $x_1^{\prime }$ and $x_2^{\prime }$ are vectors of variables, and ${\beta }_1$ and ${\beta }_2$ are the coefficients to be estimated. Observable variables $y_1$ and $y_2$ are determined by the following equations:

$$\begin{array}{c}{y}_1=\left\{\begin{array}{c}1,y_1^{*}>0\\ 0,y_1^{*}\le 0\end{array}\right.\\ y_2=\left\{\begin{array}{c}1,y_2^{*}>0\\ 0,y_2^{*}\le 0\end{array}\right.\end{array}$$

(2)

The residuals (${\epsilon }_1,{\epsilon }_2)$ are assumed to follow a bivariate normal distribution with mean vector 0 and a correlation matrix with the components of variance of 1 and correlation coefficient $\rho$:

$$\left(\frac{{\epsilon }_1}{{\epsilon }_2}\right)~N\{\left(\frac{0}{0}\right),\left[1 \rho \rho 1\right]\}$$

(3)

If the value of $\rho$ is not significantly different from zero, it illustrates that ${\epsilon }_1$ and ${\epsilon }_2$ are not correlated and therefore it would be more appropriate to use two separate probit models. Results revealed that pairwise correlations between the error terms were statistically significant in the models at the 1% level, indicating that the disturbance terms of the two equations are correlated, which lends support to the use of the bivariate probit model (LR test of $\rho$ = 0: χ²(1) = 48.7703; Prob > χ² = 0.0000). The bivariate probit model was tested for multicollinearity using a variance inflation factor (VIF). Results reveal there is no significant multicollinearity among the explanatory and dependent variables in the model.

Lastly, an ordered probit model analysed the factors that influence spendings for traditional food products. The ordered probit model was applied in the following form:

Y_ik = β₁x_i + ε_i,

(4)

where x_i represents a set of all explanatory variables presented in

Table 2. Overview of the variables used in the data analysis.

Variable	Definition
Dependent variables
Knowing local TFPs	Dummy: 1, if the respondent knew local TFP
Expenditures on local TFPs	Expenditure for one purchase of a local TFP (<2 US$; 3–5 US$; >6 US$)
Information sources used to know about local TFPs
Open sources (internet, travel guides, mass media)	Dummy: 1, if the respondent used open source before travelling to Cambodia
Tourist infrastructure (hotels, restaurants, tourist guides)	Dummy: 1, if the respondent received information from local tourist infrastructure
Local markets or pubs	Dummy: 1, if the respondent followed recommendations from local markets or pubs
Family and friends	Dummy: 1, if the respondent followed recommendations from friends or family
TFP-related personal barriers
Fear of possible health effects	Dummy: 1, if the respondent linked local TFP with potential health effects
Poor attraction (smell, taste)	Dummy: 1, if the respondent associated local TFP with poor smell or taste
Dietary habits (vegetarian, vegan)	Dummy: 1, if the respondent considered dietary habits when trying local TFP
Motivations to try local TFPs
Interest in foreign cuisine	Dummy: 1, if the respondent liked foreign cuisine
Interest in trying new TFPs	Dummy: 1, if the respondent liked to try new TFPs
Recommendations from other people	Dummy: 1, if the respondent followed other people’s attitudes towards TFPs
Affordable price of Cambodian TFPs	Dummy: 1, if the respondent considered the price for local TFPs as a reason to try
Travel behaviour
Length of stay in Cambodia	Categorical: 1 = up to one week; 2 = up to one month; 3 = one month and more
Socio-demographic characteristics
Gender	Dummy: 0 female; 1 male
Age	Dummy: 0 youth (up to 30 years); 1 elder (31 years and older)
Education	Dummy: 0 primary and secondary; 1 university and higher
Marital status	Dummy: 0 married; 1 single
Religion	Dummy: 0 atheist; 1 religious

, β₁ is a vector of estimated parameters, and ε_i is an error term. Y_ik is an ordered dependent variable representing the amount spent on a TFP per individual purchase. The ordered probit model was tested for multicollinearity using a variance inflation factor (VIF). Results reveal there is no significant multicollinearity among the explanatory and dependent variables in the model.

3. Results

3.1. Respondent Characteristics

Table 3. Demographic and socio-economic characteristics of the respondents (in %).

Categories	Variables	Total Sample (n = 1271)	TFP Users (n = 923)	TFP Non-Users (n = 348)
Gender	Female	48.9	48.8	49.1
	Male	51.1	51.3	50.9
Age	Youth (18–30 years)	54.6	50.6	65.2
	Elders (over 31 years)	45.4	49.4	34.8
Education	University degree	77.7	79.1	73.8
	Primary and secondary	22.3	20.9	26.2
Marital status	Single	72.9	71.6	76.4
	Other	27.1	28.4	23.6
Religion	Religious	61.0	60.9	30.6
	Non-religious	39.0	39.1	69.4
Length of stay in Cambodia	Up to 1 week	45.7	37.7	66.7
	Up to 1 month	30.1	33.0	22.4
	1 month and longer	24.2	29.3	10.9
Origin	Europe	44.7	46.9	38.8
	Americas	26.0	25.5	27.6
	Asia and the Pacific	22.9	22.1	25.0
	Africa and the Middle East	6.4	5.5	8.6
Expenditure for local TFPs	Less than US$ 2	…	23.4	…
	Between US$ 3–5	…	52.6	…
	More than US$ 6	…	24.0	…

presents descriptive statistics for all tourists interviewed (n = 1271) and separately for users (n = 923) and non-users (n = 348) of TFPs. Main differences between both groups are evident in the case of religion, length of stay in Cambodia and European origin. In those cases where a tourist purchased any the pre-selected TFP, average expenses were between USD 3 and 5. Nevertheless, in order to understand the associations between a tourist’s profile and his/her willingness to demand, purchase or recommend a local product, further analyses are needed, focusing on individual products and in more detail the factors influencing tourists’ behaviour and their willingness to pay for these TFPs.

3.2. Familiarity with Local TFPs

Figure 1 shows the knowledge and attitudes of tourist regarding to local TFPs. The most well-known and liked products mentioned by tourists were Kampot pepper, palm sugar and Rumdol rice (all known to at least 60% of respondents). These products are relatively likely to be purchased by tourists on a regular basis. Less well-known were products such as wild grape wine or Samraong. What was interesting was their response to their overall experience with local TFPs. In most cases, when tourists tried a local product, they had a positive experience with it. This was not particularly the case for either conventional or underutilised alcoholic beverages, which can be explained by their quality and taste, as well as the personal characteristics of the respondents (especially age, religion and marital status).

With the aim of predicting consumer willingness to purchase TFPs, data on tourists’ knowledge and attitudes were assessed using the AHP model. Overall, trends were similar to what was evidenced on their familiarity with the respective products, whereby their willingness-to-buy was the highest in the case of Kampot pepper (1.147–9.655), palm sugar (0.872–8.418) and Rumduol rice (0.879–8.491). Interestingly, Sraa sor purchase intentions of tourists were significantly lower (0.249–2.400), which is in contrast with the relatively high tourist familiarity with the product (

Table 4. Pairwise matrix of tourists’ preferences for Cambodian traditional food products.

Product	Kampot Pepper	Palm Sugar	Rumduol Rice	Ma-om	Sraa sor	Maprang	Kramsang	Cambodian Red Wine	Samraong	Wild Grape Wine
Kampot pepper	-	1.147	1.137	1.996	4.023	2.481	2.870	6.476	7.586	9.655
Palm sugar	0.872	-	0.991	1.741	3.508	2.164	2.503	5.646	6.614	8.418
Rumduol rice	0.879	1.009	-	1.756	3.538	2.182	2.524	5.695	6.671	8.491
Ma-om	0.501	0.575	0.570	-	2.015	1.243	1.438	3.244	3.800	4.836
Sraa sor	0.249	0.285	0.283	0.496	-	0.617	0.714	1.610	1.886	2.400
Maprang	0.403	0.462	0.458	0.805	1.621	-	1.157	2.610	3.057	3.891
Kramsang	0.348	0.400	0.396	0.695	1.402	0.864	-	2.256	2.643	3.364
Cambodian red wine	0.154	0.177	0.176	0.308	0.621	0.383	0.443	-	1.171	1.491
Samraong	0.132	0.151	0.150	0.263	0.530	0.327	0.378	0.854	-	1.273
Wild grape wine	0.104	0.119	0.118	0.207	0.417	0.257	0.297	0.671	0.786	-

).

Socio-economic characteristics also play a role in determining preference for certain products. For example, Kampot pepper was preferred by tourists from most to all geographical regions, regardless of education status, religion or expenditure level. This was different for Rumduol rice and palm sugar, which were mainly preferred by Muslims and Buddhists, respectively. Although respondents overall tended to prefer conventional over underutilised TFPs, products such as Ma-om, Maprang and Kramsang were even more preferred than certain conventional TFPs, which suggests a promising market potential. The higher tendency to prefer underutilised product was observed among tourists with a higher education level. With the exception of Buddhists, alcoholic beverages, i.e., Sraa sor and wild grape wine, were the less-preferred TFPs among all respondents’ categories.

Table 5. Associations between TFP familiarity and respondents’ profile.

Socio-Demographic Characteristics	Product Preference (%)
	Conventional					Underutilised
	Cambodian Red Wine	Kampot Pepper	Palm Sugar	Rumduol Rice	Sraa sor	Kramsang	Ma-om	Maprang	Samraong	Wild Grape Wine
Gender
Male	29.0	74.8	70.4	60.9	36.6	31.1	42.9	35.1	17.5	17.5
Female	18.0	75.1	72.9	60.2	30.2	25.8	34.0	29.1	10.4	9.8
p-value	<0.001	0.969	0.402	0.836	0.041	0.075	0.005	0.052	0.002	<0.001
Age
Youth (18–30)	24.0	70.7	68.1	56.5	28.3	28.5	36.6	29.1	13.7	12.0
Elders (>31)	23.2	79.4	75.2	64.7	38.8	28.5	40.6	35.3	14.5	15.6
p-value	0.792	0.002	0.016	0.011	<0.001	0.992	0.217	0.044	0.737	0.115
Education
University	22.1	73.3	71.9	60.1	34.4	28.8	37.5	32.1	12.9	13.6
Non-university	29.5	81.3	70.5	62.2	30.1	27.5	42.5	32.6	18.7	14.5
p-value	0.030	0.023	0.691	0.606	0.257	0.721	0.209	0.876	0.040	0.734
Marital status
Single	23.6	74.3	67.2	57.5	33.4	29.3	36.6	31.3	13.8	13.8
Non-single	23.7	76.7	82.8	68.3	33.6	26.3	43.5	34.4	14.9	13.7
p-value	0.984	0.462	<0.001	0.002	0.964	0.360	0.052	0.374	0.660	0.992
Religion
Religious	23.8	73.5	71.4	63.5	32.9	29.2	42.0	36.8	16.0	15.1
Non-religious	23.3	77.3	72.0	56.0	34.3	27.4	33.2	24.9	11.1	11.6
p-value	0.841	0.209	0.826	0.022	0.653	0.564	0.008	<0.001	0.035	0.113
Religion (groups)
Atheists	23.3	77.3	72.0	56.0	34.3	27.4	33.2	24.9	11.1	11.6
Buddhists	43.1	80.0	86.2	75.4	49.2	40.0	55.4	58.5	23.1	32.3
Christians	20.7	71.9	70.8	60.8	31.1	24.8	39.2	33.5	13.4	12.3
Muslims	12.9	51.6	61.3	83.9	19.4	48.4	58.1	29.0	19.4	16.1
other	26.3	81.8	66.7	59.6	33.3	32.3	38.4	37.4	20.2	14.1
p-value	0.001	0.003	0.046	0.003	0.025	0.009	0.002	<0.001	0.027	<0.001
Origin (continent)
Europe	21.6	77.0	70.9	58.3	34.2	28.2	36.5	30.0	13.8	10.1
Americas	21.2	81.7	75.0	63.5	24.0	32.7	46.2	40.4	12.5	16.3
Asia & the Pacific	31.9	69.6	72.5	59.3	35.3	27.0	38.7	32.4	15.7	20.6
Africa & the Middle East	17.6	60.8	68.6	84.3	37.3	29.4	45.1	39.2	13.7	21.6
p-value	0.016	0.005	0.794	0.003	0.177	0.757	0.218	0.131	0.877	<0.001
Length of stay
<1 week	19.0	61.8	68.4	59.2	22.1	23.9	28.4	30.2	16.1	10.6
up to 1 month	22.6	81.3	70.2	56.4	34.1	22.6	39.0	28.5	6.6	10.2
>1 month	30.7	84.8	77.4	67.0	47.4	41.1	51.1	38.9	20.0	21.9
p-value	0.003	<0.001	0.038	0.027	<0.001	<0.001	<0.001	0.018	<0.001	<0.001
Expenditure on TFP
<2 USD	24.1	73.6	71.8	56.5	35.6	31.5	43.5	25.5	12.5	9.3
3–5 USD	23.3	74.9	71.4	61.7	31.3	26.1	36.8	32.5	10.9	13.6
>6 USD	24.0	76.5	71.9	62.0	36.2	30.8	37.6	38.0	22.6	18.6
p-value	0.962	0.736	0.987	0.373	0.325	0.242	0.229	0.019	<0.001	0.019

shows detailed data on tourists’ preferences for TPFs in relation to their socio-demographic profile.

3.3. Knowledge, Factors and Barriers Influencing Attitudes towards TFPs

Results indicate that the tourists’ socio-demographic characteristics influence their willingness to be more or less open to trying TFPs during their stay in Cambodia (

Table 6. Drivers of using underutilized and conventional TFPs (Bivariate Probit Model).

TFP	Underutilised TFPs Users			Conventional TFPs Users
Variable	Coef.	S. E.	C. I.	Coef.	S. E.	C. I.
Internet, travel guides, mass media	0.47 ***	0.13	(0.21; 0.72)	1.78 ***	0.47	(0.86; 2.69)
Tourist infrastructure	0.18	0.11	(−0.04; 0.39)	0.87 **	0.32	(0.24; 1.50)
Local markets or pubs	0.30 ***	0.09	(0.12; 0.48)	0.56 **	0.19	(0.19; 0.93)
Family and friends	0.15	0.11	(−0.06; 0.35)	2.73 ***	0.42	(1.90; 3.56)
Local person suggestion	0.42 ***	0.09	(0.24; 0.61)	0.56 **	0.21	(0.15; 0.96)
Fear of possible health effects	−0.17 *	0.09	(−0.34; 0.01)	0.01	0.16	(−0.31; 0.33)
Poor presentation (smell, taste)	−0.14	0.11	(−0.36; 0.09)	0.02	0.19	(−0.34; 0.38)
Interest in foreign cuisine	0.58 ***	0.09	(0.41; 0.76)	1.98 ***	0.20	(1.59; 2.38)
Interest in trying new TFPs	0.38 ***	0.09	(0.21; 0.55)	1.98 ***	0.20	(1.59; 2.38)
Affordable price of Cambodian TFPs	−0.06	0.14	(−0.33; 0.21)	0.80 **	0.35	(0.11; 1.49)
Length of stay in Cambodia	0.20 ***	0.05	(0.10; 0.30)	0.17 *	0.09	(−0.01; 0.35)
Gender	0.19 **	0.08	(0.02; 0.35)	0.01	0.15	(−0.28; 0.30)
Age	−0.02	0.09	(−0.20; 0.17)	−0.35 **	0.17	(−0.67; −0.02)
Education	0.01	0.10	(−0.19; 0.20)	0.10	0.17	(−0.23; 0.43)
Marital status	−0.03	0.10	(−0.22; 0.17)	−0.18	0.18	(−0.53; 0.18)
Religion	0.24 **	0.08	(0.08; 0.40)	−0.17	0.15	(−0.47; 0.12)
Constant	−1.30 ***	0.22	(−1.74; −0.86)	−1.88 ***	0.49	(−2.85; −0.92)
Wald χ2(34)	429.50		0.0000

Note: Coef. = coefficient, S. E. = standard error, C. I. = confidence interval, *, **, *** = significant at 10%, 5% and 1% level.

). Respondents stated that interest in local cuisine and trying new foods (45%) were the main motivations for buying TFPs. Recommendations from friends, locals and other tourists (18%) also contributed to their decisions. Bivariate probit model results show that users of conventional products are younger, consider TFP prices as affordable and had received recommendations from family and friends and tourist industry. Underutilised TFP users are less apprehensive of possible health problems, are religious and stay longer in Cambodia.

Figure 2 shows the main reasons why tourists were not interested in or discouraged from trying local TFPs. The most common response was a lack of information (25.3%), that prevented them of having a concrete idea about local products. Some respondents mentioned the fact they had spent a relatively short time in the country as another reason for not being able to try local TFPs (23.1%). Supposing the previous two reasons can be considered as problems with logistics and the promotion of local cuisine and traditions, the other two reasons fall into the category of personal food preferences. Tourists were either concerned about possible health problems from trying local food (22.9%) or else their eating habits (vegetarianism, aversion to spicy food, etc.) prevented them from trying local dishes (20.6%). Interestingly, very few interviewed tourists (2.2%) mentioned religious reasons as a potential barrier to trying a TFP.

3.4. Expenses on Local TFPs

Ordered probit regression results show the factors that influence how much respondents were willing to spend per TFP during their stay in Cambodia (

Table 7. Factors influencing expenditures on local TFPs (n = 923; ordered probit model).

Variable	Coef.	S. E.	p-Value
Information sources on TFPs
Open sources (internet, travel guides, mass media)	0.118	0.111	0.289
Tourist infrastructure (hotels and restaurants)	0.266	0.099	0.007
Local markets or pubs	−0.064	0.084	0.451
Family and friends	0.155	0.094	0.098
Suggestions from local person restaurants/supermarkets	0.055	0.083	0.506
Attitudes towards local TFPs
Fear of possible health effects	−0.180	0.086	0.037
Poor presentation (smell, taste)	−0.291	0.112	0.009
Interest in foreign cuisine	0.130	0.084	0.121
Interest in trying new TFPs	0.003	0.084	0.972
Affordable price of Cambodian TFPs	−0.070	0.117	0.552
Length of stay in Cambodia	−0.039	0.049	0.422
Purchasing places for TFPs
Street market	−0.295	0.094	0.002
Restaurants and hotels	0.109	0.087	0.212
Socio-demographic characteristics
Gender	0.164	0.078	0.035
Age	−0.034	0.088	0.702
Education	0.024	0.094	0.800
Marital status	−0.248	0.095	0.009
Religion	0.167	0.078	0.032
/cut1	−1.267	0.258	−1.772
/cut2	0.247	0.255	−0.253
LR χ2(20)	80.60		0.000
Pseudo R2	0.043

Note: Coef. = coefficient, S. E. = standard error.

). The level of spending on TFPs was influenced by the tourists’ information sources when travelling to Cambodia. Most had obtained information from tourist infrastructure (hotels or restaurants) or friends and family. An unattractive appearance or negative sensory characteristics of TFPs tended to discourage purchase. This stresses the importance of an appealing form of packaging and presentation of these products to make them more attractive to tourists from more developed countries. Additionally, street markets are not yet ideal for the presentation and sale of local TFPs. Religion (often reflecting the respondent’s country of origin) and marital status also play a role in tourists’ interest in TFPs.

4. Discussion

Based on survey data analysis, a typical respondent can be described as a young, single, religious, male with a university education, who visits Cambodia for a few days. It corresponds well with a previously reported socio-demographic profile of typical tourists visiting southeast Asia [51,52]. Similar demographic characteristics were also recorded in previous studies that focused on tourist perceptions of and preferences for TFPs. For example, young women with a college degree were the main respondents in studies focusing on tourist choice behaviour towards TFPs in Taiwan [53] and Thailand [54,55].

Although the majority of respondents were familiar with some of the conventional TFPs, i.e., Kampot pepper, palm sugar and Rumduol rice, products classified as underutilised were also said to be known by many respondents. Among them, Limnophila aromatica, a culinary herb rich in minerals and antioxidants [56,57], was very popular among tourists eating local soups. Slightly less popular were Citrus lucida and Bouea macrophylla fruits, which have only recently been found to contain high levels of certain minerals and vitamins, respectively [57]. Since consumer preferences for a certain food product indicate its potential success in the global market [58,59], all these TFPs seem to be promising for future export from Cambodia as well as for the development of new tourist-oriented products. This observation would also suggest there would be market potential for underutilised crops that are currently undervalued in economic terms [17]. However, this survey’s underutilised products would seem to have low purchasing intentions by tourists. Since the difficulty in identifying local foods, lack of information and awareness, limited suitable opportunities and inconvenience in purchasing TFPs (e.g., time-consuming, requiring extra effort in terms of finding selling outlets) were previously identified as barriers to consuming local foods by tourists [60], better distribution, marketing, packaging and labelling of these products and the commodities derived from them would be necessary for promoting their success in the tourist market.

In general, most tourists included in this study reported a positive intention to try and purchase TFPs. However, demographic, motivational and psychological factors significantly influenced respondents’ perceptions and preferences for these products. Familiarity with a food product is one of the most important drivers to try and test the products because it reduces market uncertainty and leads to a more likely match between expectations and product characteristics [61]. Results here show that the willingness to buy TFPs positively correlates with the familiarity of tourists with the product. This observation corresponds well with another study that found a positive relationship between the level of product familiarity and tourist purchasing behaviour [62]. The latter study also showed a significant effect of certain socio-demographic characteristics, namely country of origin, education and religion, on tourist attitudes towards TFPs. Results presented here correspond well with the findings of a study that reported a significant impact of nationality and religion on the food preferences of tourists in India [63]. It has previously been reported that travellers with higher education prefer local foods more than those with only primary education [61,62]. This study shows a similar trend especially with regard to tourists’ perceptions of underutilised products.

The willingness to consume new food is an important psychological factor for tourists to try local food products. On the other hand, certain tourists may naturally dislike or be dubious about tasting unfamiliar food [7]. Correspondingly, respondents in this survey stated that interest in Cambodian cuisine and curiosity in trying some new foods were the main motivations for buying TFPs. In contrast, concern about trying unknown food due to the lack of experience and knowledge was the second most important reason for not buying these products. Moreover, the most common reason for not trying TFPs was fear of possible health consequences and hypersensitivity to certain foods. In accordance with this observation, an important impact of having food allergies on travel decisions and going on a trip abroad was previously reported [64]. These findings emphasise the importance of research that would focus on and document nutritional value, biological properties and safety of underutilised crops and the importance of disseminating this information to consumers.

Whereas literature, internet and mass media are confirmed by consumers as sources of information on modern industrial food products such as functional foods and food supplements [65,66], local markets, small shops and restaurants were the main places where tourists obtained their information on Cambodian TFPs. Moreover, street markets were the most common places where tourists bought these products. Besides their proven role in motivating tourists to travel to a certain destination [67], local markets play an important role in promoting and distributing TFPs among tourists. Developing specific marketing strategies for these local markets will be an important factor in bringing future commercial success of underutilised TFPs.

5. Conclusions and Policy Implications

5.1. Conclusions

In this study, tourist perceptions of and preferences for Cambodian TFPs were investigated with the aim of comparing the market potential of conventional and underutilised food plant products. Overall, results show a relatively high familiarity of tourists with TFPs. Although more respondents were familiar with conventional TFPs, certain products classified as underutilised were also recognised by many respondents to be trustworthy. Most tourists reported a positive intention to try and purchase TFPs, whereas their willingness to buy correlated positively with their familiarity with the product. A significant relationship was also found between tourist preferences for TPFs and country of origin, level of education, religion, and level of spending on each TFP. Therefore, the study suggests a market potential for local underutilised crops and consequently for rural and agricultural development through their commercialisation. However, better distribution organisation, marketing, packaging, and labelling of these species and the commodities derived from them will be necessary to sustainably promote their success in the tourist market.

5.2. Policy Implications and Recommendations

This study also has policy implications and provides suggestions for recommendations. Results show how neglecting TFPs by development strategies might lead to marginalisation of local food systems in tourism programmes and bring less impact on the development of the communities. Traditional cuisines and local food systems tend to keep tourists in a destination for a longer time and increase the amount of money spent in the country. Tourism has been recognised as an important development opportunity for both urban and rural communities in many countries. Therefore, it should be promoted to achieve its maximum potential and not be left unexplored. Cambodia, as a relatively small country, needs to diversify attractions for foreign tourists and TFPs have a very good potential to do this. Generally, local households are aware of the positive impact of tourism on their livelihood and community development. Therefore, in regions lacking natural, cultural or historical sites, local TFP can become a tourist attraction. Furthermore, findings indicate that tourism also creates employment opportunities that will generate government revenues through taxes.

As women play a significant role in agriculture production, promoting TFPs could also lead to the latter’s empowerment. It is also very important to link TFPs producers with restaurants and markets to support the sustainability of the whole system. Finally, promoting local food systems will help conserve local culture and food habits.

Policymakers should perceive all these issues when formulating and developing plans for effective tourism development. In this specific case, this study provides the following practical implications. First, local tourism, agriculture and rural development stakeholders have to check and rethink current plans if they do not promote destination attractiveness and local TFPs. Second, current value chains with TFPs must be analysed for their stability whereas local products should be considered by national and international certification systems to ensure food safety or prevent falsification. Finally, all development and promotion strategies should consider sustainable harvesting of plant species to avoid overexploitation of natural heritage.

5.3. Limitations and Future Research

Despite its sound practical and theoretical contributions, this study is not without limitations. Findings are based predominantly on the willingness of respondents to participate in the survey and use English as a language, which might have resulted in the exclusion of some groups of tourists from the survey’s sample population. Similarly, future studies could bring interesting insights if they would focus on specific segments of tourists, such as the elderly, women or from emerging countries. Additionally, to gain a better insight into local food in destination marketing and development, empirical research is necessary among producers, farmers and processing companies. Such research could further support the recommendations towards policymakers, but also to various nodes along the underutilised species value chains, e.g., increasing awareness and motivations to try local products, identify weaknesses in packaging and labelling.