The Carpathian Agriculture in Poland in Relation to Other EU Countries, Ukraine and the Environmental Goals of the EU CAP 2023–2027

Abstract

This study discusses the issue of determining the direction and strength of changes taking place in the structure of agricultural land in the mountain and foothill areas of the Carpathians in Poland in comparison with Slovakia, Romania and Ukraine. The most important financial institutional measures dedicated to the protection of the natural environment in Polish agriculture in the Areas facing Natural and other specific Constraints (ANCs) mountain and foothill in the first year of the CAP 2023–2027 were also established. Satellite data from 2001 to 2022 were used. The analyses used the land use classification MCD12Q1 provided by NASA and were made on the basis of satellite imagery collections from the MODIS sensor placed on two satellites: TERRA and AQUA. In EU countries, a decreasing trend in agricultural areas has been observed in areas below 350 m above sea level. In areas above 350 m, this trend weakened or even turned into an upward trend. Only in Ukraine was a different trend observed. It was found that in Poland, the degree of involvement of farmers from mountain and foothill areas in implementing financial institutional measures dedicated to protecting the natural environment during the study period was not satisfactory.

1. Introduction

For the European Commission (EC), one of the main goals now is to take additional measures to protect the natural environment even more than before, including, above all, reducing the negative pressure from agricultural activity [1,2,3]. The natural environment in the European Union (EU) is increasingly degraded as a result of agricultural processes, often leading to erosion, loss of organic matter in soils, and loss of biodiversity and landscape [4]. The intensification of these processes is greatly influenced by the phenomenon of local abandonment of the weakest land [5,6,7,8,9,10]. It should be emphasized that the risk of agricultural land abandonment primarily applies to mountainous and foothill areas [11,12,13,14]. These areas are characterized by particularly difficult terrain, a large share of soils of extremely low quality and a much shorter growing season of crops than in lowland areas, which exceptionally limits their beneficial selection. At the same time, these are sensitive areas facing threats such as climate change, land-use change, depopulation or degradation of natural resources [15,16].

Farms in mountainous and foothill areas often incur higher production costs and lower production results compared to other farms [17]. As a result, farmers on these farms are much more likely to decide to abandon their agricultural activities because they are unable to obtain satisfactory income under these conditions [18]. These areas, therefore, face major challenges in maintaining viable agricultural structures, all the more so as they have been facing a steady decline in the use of agricultural land or its conversion for many years. This state of affairs is also a source of increasing losses for society in the context of providing it with environmental public goods. This situation is all the more worrying because mountain and foothill areas are naturally predestined for the protection of biodiversity and diverse landscapes and, as a result, are of particular importance as important areas for tourism and recreation activities [19,20,21]. However, in order for them to meet social expectations to an adequate extent, it is necessary to have institutional measures that would be able to help maintain agricultural production in these areas in a sustainable and stable manner and without loss to the natural environment [22].

In the EU, mountain and foothill areas are financially supported under the CAP, which is revised every few years. This support serves to continue agricultural production and to maintain and promote sustainable farming systems in these conditions [23]. We are talking about the Areas facing Natural and other specific Constraints (ANCs) in the mountains and with specific difficulties (in the foothills). In other words, support for agriculture, especially in these areas, is treated as remuneration for the production of not only market goods but also goods and services of an environmental nature, important for society but not remunerated by the market [24]. At the same time, these areas are predisposed to develop other institutional activities within the CAP, ensuring a balance between the provision of environmental public goods and market goods. In the current European agricultural policy, at least 25% of the direct payments budget and 35% of the rural development budget must be allocated to these measures [25]. In the first case, we are talking about eco-schemes that are part of the first pillar, and in the second about organic and agri–environment–climate measures that are part of the second pillar of the CAP 2023–2027.

The ongoing discussion on sustainability has made us understand that agriculture plays a key role in this regard. However, we found a significant research gap in the literature on regional differences in mountain and foothill agriculture. The study is designed to fill this gap regarding the determination of the direction and strength of changes taking place in the structure of agricultural land in the mountain and foothill areas of the Carpathians in Poland in comparison with Slovakia, Romania and Ukraine in the years 2001–2022. An important advantage of this analysis is also to determine the importance of the most important financial institutional measures dedicated to the protection of the natural environment in Polish agriculture in the ANCs mountain and foothill in the first year of the CAP 2023–2027. The lack of results of such analyses is visible in the international literature so far.

2. Materials and Methods

In order to determine the direction and strength of changes taking place in the structure of agricultural land development in the mountain and foothill areas of the Carpathians in Poland in comparison with Slovakia, Romania and Ukraine, satellite data from 2001 to 2022 were used.

The analyses used the land use classification MCD12Q1 provided by NASA and were made on the basis of a collection of satellite imagery from the MODIS sensor placed on two satellites: TERRA and AQUA [26]. This classification is available in several versions using different amounts and definitions of the distinguished classes in a 500 m pixel raster and has been updated annually since 2001. The analysis was based on the Annual International Geosphere–Biosphere Programme (IGBP) classification version distinguished by the code LC_Type1, which distinguished the most, i.e., 17 classes of use, from the entire time range of classification available at the time of the research, i.e., for the years 2001–2022. Agricultural land in the LC_Type1 classification was classified into three classes: (c10) grasslands; (c12) croplands, where at least 60% of the area is cultivated cropland; (c14) cropland/natural vegetation mosaics, where mosaics are of small-scale cultivation 40–60% with natural tree, shrub, or herbaceous vegetation.

The areas corresponding to the ANCs foothill and mountain were determined using only the criterion of the height of the area above sea level, which is used in most EU countries. Using MERIT digital terrain model data with a resolution of 90 m, which was aggregated to a raster of mean elevation values with a resolution of 500 m and geometry consistent with the MODIS land use raster, the foothill ANCs included areas of agricultural land located between 350 and 500 m above sea level, and the mountain ANCs included areas of agricultural land located above 500 m above sea level [27]. The Carpathian area was separated using the Ecoregions layer, from which the Carpathian region was selected (ECO_ID = 692) [28].

The summation of the shares of area by country was made using the country borders from The Global Administrative Unit Layers (GAUL) provided by FAO [29]. In the reported analyses, the areas of the Carpathians within the borders of the Czech Republic and Hungary were omitted due to the very small area of areas above 350 m above sea level. All of these GIS operations were performed in the cloud on the Google Earth Engine platform by running the script developed for the analysis via a web browser [30,31].

In the second part of the study, in order to determine the degree of involvement of Polish farms from mountain and foothill areas in the implementation of the most important institutional measures for the protection of the natural environment, i.e., eco-schemes, as well as organic and agri–environment–climate measures in the first year of the CAP 2023–2027, the analysis was carried out in groups of communes with different shares of these ANCs. The first group of communes had an equal or greater than 75% share of ANCs mountain and foothill in utilized agricultural area (UAA), hereinafter referred to as communes with a very high share of ANCs. The second group consisted of communes with a share of this type of ANCs in the total area of UAA lower than 75% and at least equal to 50%, hereinafter referred to as communes with a large share of them. The third and fourth groups were communes with a share of these areas lower than 50% and at least equal to 25% (moderate) and less than 25% (small) in the total area of UAA. The reference communes were those outside the ANCs mountain and foothill (Figure 1 and Figure 2). In Poland, the current delimitation of ANCs areas, as part of the biophysical procedure, was carried out by the Institute of Soil Science and Plant Cultivation State Research Institute (ISSPC SRI) and as part of the fine-tuning procedure by the Institute of Agricultural and Food Economics of the National Research Institute (IAFE NRI) in 2019 at the request of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MARD) and the European Commission [32]. In Poland, there are currently five ANCs zones: (1) with natural constraints zone I; (2) with natural constraints zone II; (3) specific type zone I; (4) specific type (foothills) zone II; and (5) mountain [33].

In the analyzed groups of communes, the number of farms and the area of agricultural land covered by eco-schemes, organic and agri–environmental–climate measures, as well as their share in the total number of farms and area of agricultural land, were determined in terms of communes with different saturation of ANCs mountain and foothill based on data from the Agency for Restructuring and Modernization of Agriculture (ARMA), which in Poland is a public institution implementing these payments under the EU CAP 2023–2027. The analysis took into account 13 practices under 5 area-based eco-schemes separately, as well as organic and agri–environment–climate measures (

Table 1. Eco-schemes and their practices as well as organic and agri–environment–climate measures implemented in Polish agriculture under the CAP 2023–2027 in 2023.

Eco-Scheme/Practice within an Eco-Scheme
1. Carbon farming and nutrient management	1.1. Extensive permanent grasslands with livestock 1.2. Winter catch crops/intercrops 1.3. Fertilization plans (basic variant) 1.4. Fertilization plans (liming variant) 1.5. Diversified sowing structure 1.6. Mixing solid manure on arable land within 12 h of its application 1.7. Using liquid manure with methods other than splashing 1.8. Reduced tillage systems 1.9. Mixing straw with soil
2. Areas with melliferous plants
3. Water retention on permanent grassland
4. Integrated plant production
5. Biological protection of plants
Organic farming measure
Agri–environment–climate measure

Source: [34].

).

3. Agriculture in Mountain and Foothill Areas as a Source of Market and Public Goods—Theoretical Approach

In order to create appropriate conditions for agricultural production in mountain and foothill areas in a sustainable and stable way, it is necessary to have institutional measures aimed at the synergy of the economic, social and environmental spheres. Only this type of activity is able to effectively motivate and foster the emergence of behaviors expected by society and related to the provision of high-quality market goods and a wide range of environmental public goods. This is indicated by the research in the field of reconciling economic and environmental goals in the management of mountain areas [35]. In other words, agriculture in these areas needs well-designed and carefully designed public measures that can play an important role in its success through regulation and financial incentives [36]. At the same time, these activities must be trusted by farmers. On the other hand, the lack of such institutional measures in agriculture from mountain and foothill areas will strengthen the current process of abandonment of agricultural land. This process will also have a negative impact on local socio-economic development, the possibility of preserving cultural values, and the condition of biodiversity and landscape, including areas of particularly high natural value [37]. This situation is all the more worrying as 18% of farms are involved in mountain farming, using 15% of agricultural land and 15% of the EU workforce [38]. Moreover, the total production of agriculture from mountain areas accounts for 8% of the total agricultural production in the EU [39].

Mountain and foothill areas used for agriculture using sustainable practices make a particular contribution to ensuring sustainable and biodiverse ecosystems, as well as positively affecting the resilience of agriculture to the effects of climate change (Tarolli and Straffelini, 2020 [10]). At the same time, they allow society to consume safe and healthy food in harmony with the surrounding natural environment [10,40]. In addition, they provide aesthetic, recreational and cultural benefits [41]. Moreover, they are conducive to the preservation of a varied landscape, which makes life more attractive for rural residents and visitors and supports the development of agritourism [42,43,44]. Therefore, these areas developed for agriculture also have a positive impact on the preservation of local tradition and stimulation of the development of alternative forms of economic activity to agriculture [45,46]. In these areas, efforts are needed to increase the importance of sustainable agriculture. This system allows for the rational use of natural environment resources while maintaining a moderate intensity of agricultural production that provides satisfactory economic results and environmental public goods to society at the expected level [47,48].

In the EU, for farms from mountain and foothill areas, participation in environmental measures under the EU CAP is an important opportunity for economically stable functioning [49,50,51]. In the context of the growing importance of these activities, it should be emphasized that the production and good promotion of local, high-quality products, documented institutionally, are the two main conditions for the existence of food chains based on values shared by society and at the same time a guarantee of further development of agriculture in mountain and foothill areas [52,53,54]. Therefore, it is advisable for farms from these areas to participate widely in institutional environmental measures, as well as to avoid a situation in which some of them resign from continuing these activities after the statutory period of their implementation.

Agriculture in mountain and foothill areas has many tasks to perform; in particular, it should provide high-quality food products and protect the natural environment to a wide extent. Only in this way can it provide farmers with a satisfactory level of personal income and attractive spaces for living, working and recreation for society.

Studies of land-use changes in the Carpathian area provide insight into the condition of agriculture in Central Europe and allow for assessing the effects of institutional measures in this area. A meta-analysis covering the entire Carpathian showed that the increased expansion of areas used for agriculture at the expense of forests took place during the Austro–Hungarian monarchy and the beginning of the socialist period, and the reverse trend of fallow and forest succession, initiated in the final period of the socialist economy, had the greatest intensity in the years 1985–2000 [55]. Areas of low agro-ecological value (higher altitude) that were converted to agriculture during the socialist period were set aside the most [56]. The groups of factors determining changes in use during the period of agricultural expansion were economic and institutional factors, and during the period of forest expansion, socio-demographic factors and institutional changes [55]. After 2010, the annual change in forest area was 0.2% in Poland, 0.1% in Slovakia, 0.8% in Romania and −0.2% in Ukraine [57]. Regional studies conducted in Poland mention, among other factors, acidification and nutrient depletion of the soil [58]; excessive slope slopes for mechanical cultivation and an increase in the number of jobs outside agriculture [59]; unfavorable terrain; proximity to the forest and low agricultural usefulness of soils as direct causes of fallow land and forest succession [60]; and the decline in the profitability of agricultural production in the final period of socialism as a result of the reduction in budget subsidies for mountain farms while abolishing restrictions on the development of other, more profitable forms of economic activity [61]. Regional studies conducted in Slovakia indicated that one of the most important causes of mountain forest losses is damage to planted forest monocultures that are not resistant to mountain storms [62]. Regional studies conducted in Romania observed that hard-to-reach areas with high transport costs and low agricultural suitability of soils are afforested and that the development of tourist infrastructure takes place in some regions at the expense of arable land [63,64]. On the other hand, in Ukraine, excessive altitude and slope, as well as low agricultural suitability of soils, were indicated as the main reasons for fallow in the mountains [65,66].

Questions arise about the direction and strength of changes in agricultural land use taking place in the Carpathian in Poland in comparison with Slovakia, Romania and Ukraine. It is also important to find an answer to the question of the importance of institutional environmental measures in a special way dedicated to the protection of the natural environment in Polish agriculture in the areas of ANCs mountain and foothill in the first year of the CAP 2023–2027. We are talking about eco-schemes as well as organic and agri–environmental–climate measures.

4. Results

4.1. Changes in Land Use in the Foothills and Mountain Areas of the Carpathians in the EU Countries and Ukraine in the Last 20 Years

This study tried to fill the gap in the explanation of changes in use in the context of the impact of area subsidies and ANCs on the agricultural use of mountain and foothill areas, which, after accession to the EU in 2004, included Poland and Slovakia, and from 2007 Romania. As Ukraine is not an EU member state, the part of the Carpathian Mountains between Poland, Slovakia and Romania that belongs to it is a natural control area with a free market economy that has so far been low-subsidized. The land use analysis (MODIS classified satellite imagery in the 500 m raster for the years 2001–2022 was used) was carried out in the Carpathian in the following land height ranges: (i) below 350 m; (ii) 350–500 m, (iii) above 500 m above sea level. These correspond approximately to the ranges of the areas: (i) covered only by area subsidies; (ii) covered by area subsidies and ANCs for foothill areas; (iii) covered by area subsidies and ANCs subsidies for mountain areas.

A visual comparison of land use for the extreme years of the studied period of 2001 and 2022 allows for identifying three regions of dominant changes (Figure 3), including the following: (i) Poland, where cropland area is fragmented (transitions from the range above 60% to 40–60%) and grassland is converted into forest areas; (ii) Romania where cropland is converted into grassland; (iii) areas of Ukraine below 350 m, which intensify the share of cropland (transitions from the range of 40–60% to above 60%).

In order to better identify the changes in the area of agricultural land occurring over time, for the above-mentioned altitude zones from the area of three EU countries and Ukraine, the total agricultural area, including cropland, was calculated and then illustrated on cumulative charts (Figure 4).

In areas below 350 m above sea level in all EU countries analyzed in 2001–2022, the cropland area decreased, with the sowing loss being highest in Romania (−4.3% per year) and lowest in Poland (−1.7% per year). In the areas of Ukraine located below 350 m, there was an increase in both the cropland area (0.5% per year) and the total area of agricultural land (0.5% per year). In the analyzed EU countries, in the Carpathian areas below 350 m, the area of agricultural land decreased, with the strongest in Romania (−2.0% per year) and Poland (−1.8% per year). The loss of cropland in Slovakia and Romania was partially compensated by an increase in the area of grassland.

In the areas in the altitude range of 350–500 m above sea level, the cropland area decreased in all the analyzed countries, with the strongest in Poland (−2.6% per year) and the weakest in Ukraine (−0.2% per year). In most countries, the increase in grassland compensated for the decrease in sowing area, so the agricultural area in Slovakia even increased slightly (0.2% per year). Only in Poland did the rapid decline in the area of grassland contribute to a stronger decline in the area of agricultural land (−2.9% per year).

In the areas above 500 m above sea level, the cropland area decreased in all the analyzed countries, with the strongest in Poland (−4.1% per year) and the lowest in Slovakia (−0.8% per year). The increase in grassland area compensated for the decrease in cropland in Romania and Slovakia, so the agricultural area increased slightly (by 0.7% and 0.4% per year, respectively). In Ukraine and Poland, the area of agricultural land decreased (by −2.1% and −0.9% per year, respectively).

Despite the differences in trends in changes in land use between individual countries, there is also a common feature of EU countries—the downward trend in agricultural land area present in areas below 350 m above sea level is being mitigated or even turning into an upward trend in areas above 350 m. Only in Ukraine is there an upward trend in the area of agricultural land in areas below 350 m above sea level and a downward trend above. This observation can be explained by the lack of sufficient institutional support for areas with unfavorable agro-environmental conditions in Ukraine, which results in the intensification of agricultural production in low-lying areas and simultaneous extensification in mountainous areas.

4.2. Involvement of Farms from Mountain and Foothill Areas in Poland in the Implementation of Environmental Measures in the First Year of the CAP 2023–2027

In 2023, communes with ANCs in mountain and foothill areas accounted for 11.1% of the total number of farms that carried out agricultural production on 5.5% of the total UAA in Poland. The largest number of farms and the area of agricultural land were located in communes with a very high share of these areas. On the other hand, this group of communes had the lowest share of farms participating in eco-schemes (17.4%). It was more than twice as low as in communes with a large share and outside the ANC mountain and foothill. At the same time, these communes had the largest share of farms participating in the agri–environment–climate measure (11.3%). In other communes, this share was clearly smaller and ranged from 0.7 to 4.7% of the total number of farms. Regardless of the saturation of communes with ANCs mountain and foothill, farmers’ interest in organic production was low (

Table 2. Selected organizational features of agriculture in communes with different shares of ANCs mountain and foothill in Poland in 2023.

Specification	Communes with the Share of ANCs Mountain and Foothill:				Other Communes
	Very High	High	Medium	Small
Number of farms, including share of participating environmental measures under the CAP 2023–2027:	69,037	3631	22,674	42,241	1,096,707
- In eco-schemes (%)	17.4	35.0	22.0	23.9	36.5
- In organic farming measure (%)	1.0	0.2	0.4	0.6	1.7
- In agri–environment–climate measure (%)	11.3	0.7	3.9	2.1	4.7
Total agricultural area (ha)	383,861	22,756	110,764	257,322	13,320,240

Source: own study based on ARMA.

).

In communes with ANCs mountain and foothill, the most common practice chosen by farmers under eco-schemes was to mix straw with soil (Figure 5). This practice was most popular in communes, with a small share of these areas. This was followed by the practice of diversified sowing structures and extensive permanent grassland with livestock. It should be noted, however, that in the case of the practice implemented on permanent grassland, 76.8% of beneficiaries implemented it in communes with a very high share of ANCs mountain and foothill. It should also be added that 18.5% of the total number of beneficiaries of this practice in Poland were located in these communes. In addition, as mentioned earlier, in these communes, compared to the other communes with ANCs mountain and foothill, farmers most often also implemented agri–environment–climatic measures (

Table 3. Share of farms implementing practices under eco-schemes, organic and agri–environment–climate measures in communes with different shares of ANCs mountain and foothill in Poland in 2023.

Specification	Communes with the Share of ANCs Mountain and Foothill:				Other Communes
	Very High	High	Medium	Small
Eco-schemes:
Eco-scheme: Carbon farming and nutrient management
Extensive permanent grasslands with livestock	18.5	0.3	2.3	3.0	75.9
Winter catch crops/intercrops	0.6	0.1	0.3	1.2	97.8
Fertilization plans (basic variant)	0.5	0.0	0.3	0.9	98.3
Fertilization plans (liming variant)	0.8	0.1	0.6	1.1	97.3
Diversified sowing structure	5.3	0.2	3.7	4.0	86.7
Mixing solid manure on arable land within 12 h of its application	1.1	0.2	0.6	1.0	97.1
Using liquid manure with methods other than splashing	1.9	0.2	0.6	0.5	96.8
Reduced tillage systems	0.6	0.1	0.6	1.8	96.9
Mixing straw with soil	1.6	0.4	1.2	3.0	93.8
Eco-scheme: Areas with melliferous plants	3.6	0.2	1.4	3.2	91.5
Eco-scheme: Water retention on permanent grassland	2.5	0.0	0.5	0.6	96.3
Eco-scheme: Integrated plant production	1.2	0.0	0.4	1.1	97.3
Eco-scheme: Biological protection of plants	0.6	0.0	0.1	1.9	97.4
Organic farming measure	3.4	0.0	0.5	1.4	94.7
Agri–environmental–climate measure	12.8	0.0	1.4	1.5	84.2

Source: own study based on ARMA.

; Figure 6, Figure 7 and Figure 8).

In communes with ANCs mountain and foothill, a large diversity also occurred in terms of the area of agricultural land covered by individual practices under eco-schemes. The largest area of the agricultural land was covered by the practice of mixing straw with soil and reduced tillage systems. Both of these practices were implemented to the greatest extent in communes with a small share of ANCs mountain and foothill. The situation was slightly different in the case of the practice, the diversified sowing structure, which ranked third in terms of the area covered by the support. The area of other practices under eco-schemes was much smaller. Noteworthy, however, is the relatively large area of implementation of the agri–environment–climate measure, primarily in communes with a particularly high share of mountain and foothill ANCs (Figure 8, Figure 9 and Figure 10).

In Poland, in 2023, agriculture from ANCs mountain and foothill areas participated to a limited extent in eco-schemes and in organic and agri–environment–climate measures, which primarily serve the protection of the natural environment under the CAP 2023–2027. At the same time, their presence in these areas is particularly expected, as it is uniquely conducive to providing many environmental goods to society related to the improvement of soil conditions and the preservation of a varied and highly valuable landscape. As a result, it also creates opportunities for farmers to earn satisfactory incomes for the production of high-quality market goods.

There is no doubt that the degree of involvement of farmers from ANCs mountain and foothill in the implementation of these institutional measures is not satisfactory at the moment, especially since these areas are naturally predestined for their implementation to a much wider extent.

5. Discussion

Agriculture in mountain and foothill areas has many tasks to perform. In many countries, agriculture is the most important area of employment and the main source of food for mountain people. At the same time, it encounters many problems and unfavorable phenomena that are barriers to their proper and rational development. In addition to providing food products, it is also designed to protect the natural environment to a wide extent. However, a large share of marginal land in the total area of agricultural land, underdevelopment of infrastructure, or difficulties in implementing new technologies often lead to the abandonment of agricultural land [67,68]. In Polish conditions, the poor spatial structure of farms is also important [69]. Other research shows that in many countries, spatial constraints in mountainous regions are no longer the main factors limiting agricultural production [70].

In this research comparing land use changes for the years 2001 and 2022, three regions of dominant transformation were identified, including Poland, where cropland is fragmented and grassland is converted into forest areas; Romania, where cropland is converted into grassland; and areas of Ukraine below 350 m, which intensify the share of cropland.

In all the analyzed EU countries, in the years 2001–2022, in areas located below 350 m above sea level, the area of agricultural land decreased, with the strongest in Romania and Poland. On the other hand, the decrease in cropland was diverse. Agriculture in Romania was the highest, and Poland was the lowest. On the other hand, in areas located below 350 m in Ukraine, there was an increase in both cropland and the total area of agricultural land. The decrease in cropland in Slovakia and Romania was partially compensated by an increase in permanent grassland, which is beneficial, according to [71], from an environmental point of view, and the key benefit is the maintenance of biodiversity. Sustainable agriculture in mountain areas is a crucial requirement for maintaining biodiversity, ecosystem services and landscapes [72,73].

Areas located in the altitude range of 350–500 m above sea level were characterized by decreasing cropland areas in all the analyzed countries. This process was most intense in Poland and the weakest in Ukraine. In most countries, the increase in grassland compensated for the decrease in cropland area, so the agricultural area in Slovakia even increased slightly (0.2% per year). Only in Poland did the rapid decline of grassland contribute to a stronger decline in the area of agricultural land (−2.9% per year). General restrictions on land use for agricultural purposes have dominated in European mountain areas [74]. This is often due to the fact that mountain areas are often subject to conflicts between different user interests and their protection [75]. This was pointed out when analyzing land abandonment in the Pyrenees mountain areas, which had negative effects on the sustainability of ecosystem services [76].

In areas above 500 m above sea level, cropland area also decreased in all the analyzed countries, with the strongest in Poland and the weakest in Slovakia. In mountain areas, there is a particularly strong decline in the importance of agriculture as a source of income, and an intensification of the process of de-agrarianizing the countryside is observed [77]. This is because farms located in mountainous areas are usually not able to produce agricultural products that are competitive, including in terms of price, compared to the effects of the work of large-scale lowland farms [78]. However, maintaining agriculture in these areas is related to the fulfillment of environmental functions specified by them, which can be carried out in connection with filling market niches related to specialization (e.g., organic farming). It is possible to successfully engage in mountain farming, but this requires significant labor resources, a favorable climate and a rational approach to production [79]. However, given the importance of these areas in providing ecosystem services, consideration should be given to reducing the use of chemical protection products and mineral fertilizers [80]. Also, in these areas, an increase in the area of grassland was observed, which compensated for the decrease in cropland. From an environmental point of view, this is a positive phenomenon because, in the past, the benefits of meadows and mountain pastures were associated with the provision of animal feed. Nowadays, their importance is growing in the regulation of ecosystems and the provision of ecosystem services [81]. They serve as habitats for a diverse range of plant and animal species, supporting biodiversity and preserving ecological balance [82,83]. The largest increase in grassland in areas above 500 m above sea level was observed in Romania and Slovakia.

When analyzing the changes in land use in mountain and foothill areas, it should be noted that there was also a common feature between the surveyed countries concerning the decrease in the area of agricultural land and cropland in areas below 350 m above sea level. On the other hand, the areas located above 350 m above sea level were characterized to a greater or lesser extent by the replacement of the area under sowing in favor of grassland. Similar results were obtained by [84], where in the years 1987–2018, there was an increase in forest area and grassland in the Zijin Mountain. This can be considered a positive phenomenon because, as [85] points out, recognizing the importance of mountain meadows in mitigating climate change is the first step towards securing them for future generations, and as [86] reports, the sustainable development of agriculture in mountain areas depends on sustainable economic development, but also on knowledge and culture, which play a positive role in maintaining the stability of landscapes. This is very important, as mountain area agriculture is losing out economically, but it plays an important role due to its impact on cultural identity, as well as sustaining the tourist and scenic functions of these areas [87]. It is also related to the possibility of developing non-agricultural activities to sustain the income of mountain and foothill residents.

Agricultural production in mountainous regions provides necessary employment opportunities for local residents and supports small businesses such as cheese production or organic product supply chains. In addition, it promotes sustainable tourism [88,89]. Therefore, in EU countries, these areas have been the addressees of state financial interventionism for many years, and the common agricultural policy (CAP) plays a key role in the EU’s mountain areas, providing financial support and promoting sustainable practices [42]. The implementation of such support is a necessity to overcome the obstacles arising from the geographic peripheral location of these areas and their low competitiveness [90]. Hence, the specific importance and development problems of mountain and foothill areas make them the addressees of specially targeted regional development tools in the European Union [87]. Financial support plays an essential role in agriculture in order to maintain its sustainability, especially in mountainous areas [91]. Such a type of support for farmers can now be payments under eco-schemes, which are part of Pillar I of the CAP.

An analysis of the participation of Polish farms in eco-schemes and in organic and agri–environmental–climate measures in ANCs mountain and foothill areas in 2023 indicates that this was limited participation. This is an unfavorable phenomenon because, as indicated by [92,93], the implementation of eco-scheme practices is uniquely conducive to environmental protection. The degree of involvement of farmers from ANCs mountain and foothill in the implementation of these institutional activities is not satisfactory at the moment. These areas are naturally predestined for their implementation to a much wider extent. This is important because, as [94] points out, mountainous regions are characterized by complex interconnections between human and natural systems. Important problems may be the complexity of eco-schemes and the lack of awareness among farmers about their importance for ecosystem services [95,96].

6. Conclusions

Mountain and foothill agriculture plays a key role in protecting diverse ecosystems and rare species that depend on traditional agricultural practices for their survival. In these areas, there is a progressive decrease in cropland area and a decrease in the profitability of agricultural production, which characterizes Carpathian agriculture in the EU. Only in Ukraine have these changes been least marked. In the EU, financial support for farms in these areas is important. Given the provision of public goods by agriculture in mountainous areas, such as the protection of biodiversity, proper management of water, preservation of the landscape, and preservation of traditional meadows and pastures, among others, maintaining public support is very important. However, the changes that are taking place to meet environmental requirements for farmers to receive subsidies (including under eco-schemes) are causing restrictions on the use of these funds. The goals of the latest common agricultural policy are more ambitious, and requirements under institutional measures have increased. Moreover, eco-schemes, which have been in effect since 2023, are often still not sufficiently known by farmers. Therefore, after the first year of their operation, polish farmers’ interest in them in mountain areas was at a low level. However, it can be hoped that the maintenance of agriculture in mountainous areas, related to the fulfillment of the ecosystem functions they defined and the use of payments to support these activities, will increase in the next years.