The Impact of Location of Labor Migration on Rural Households’ Income: Evidence from Jiangxi Province in China
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Research Hypotheses
2.1. The Impact of Intra-Country Labor Migration on Income of Rural Households
2.2. The Impact of Outside-of-County Labor Migration on Income of Rural Households
3. Research Design
3.1. Data Sources
3.2. Variable Selection
3.2.1. Dependent Variables
3.2.2. Independent Variables
3.2.3. Control Variables
3.3. Descriptive Analysis
3.4. Model Construction
4. Empirical Analysis
4.1. Baseline Regression
4.2. Quantile Regression
4.3. Robustness Test
4.4. Heterogeneity Analysis
4.5. Endogeneity Test
5. Discussion
6. Conclusions and Policy Implications
6.1. Conclusions
6.2. Policy Implications
Author Contributions
Funding
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Variable | Variable Symbol | Definition | Mean | SD |
---|---|---|---|---|
Dependent variable | ||||
Total rural households’ income | RTI (ln) | RTI (including income from forestry activities, off-farm employment, agricultural activities, and others) (Yuan) in 2018 taken in logarithms | 11.027 | 1.458 |
Rural households’ forestry income | RFI (ln) | RFI (including income from timber forests, bamboo forests, economic forests, under-forest economy, the income from forest-related part-time employment, and other income) (Yuan) in 2018 taken in logarithms | 5.682 | 4.208 |
Rural households’ off-farmer income | ROI (ln) | ROI (including off-farm income in this study is defined as off-farm income, wages, salaries, and remittances of household members) (Yuan) in 2018 taken in logarithms | 10.660 | 1.983 |
Independent variable | ||||
Intra-county labor migration | Number of intra-county labor migration/Number of family laborers (%) | 0.223 | 0.342 | |
Outside-of-county labor migration | Number of outside-of-county labor migration/Number of family laborers (%) | 0.310 | 0.360 | |
Control variables | ||||
Personal characteristics of the head of household | ||||
Age | Age of head of household in the year of survey (actual years) | 56.805 | 10.185 | |
Educational level | Educational level of the head of household (elementary school and below = 1; middle school = 2; middle or high school = 3; college or bachelor’s degree or higher = 4 | 1.899 | 0.823 | |
Whether village cadres | Whether the head of household is a village cadre (Yes = 1; No = 0) | 0.392 | 0.500 | |
Family characteristics | ||||
Number of family members | Number of family (persons) | 4.824 | 2.228 | |
Whether or not there is labor migration? | Whether or not there is labor migration in the rural household (Yes = 1; No = 0) | 0.640 | 0.480 | |
Number of laborers | Number of family laborers (persons) | 2.842 | 1.427 | |
Number of outgoing laborers | Number of outgoing laborers (persons) | 1.239 | 1.260 | |
Village Characteristics | ||||
Area of forestland | Total area of forestland (hectares) | 8.044 | 20.325 | |
Average area of forestland | Total area of forestland/number of forested plots (hectares) | 1.670 | 3.066 | |
Distance | Distance from the village to the town center (kilometers) | 7.242 | 6.058 | |
Percentage of village labor migration | Number of village labor migration/total number of villages | 0.497 | 0.204 | |
Village income | Village income (including financial assistance income, resource exploitation and remittance income, management income, investment income, and other income) (Yuan) in 2018 taken in logarithms | 8.618 | 0.311 | |
Village population | Village population(person) logarithmic for the year before the year of household research | 7.119 | 0.699 |
Variables | Dependent Variable: RTI (ln) | Dependent Variable: RFI (ln) | Dependent Variable: ROI (ln) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | Model 4 | Model 5 | Model 6 | |
0.255 ** (0.190) | 0.285 ** (0.172) | 0.888 (0.547) | 0.539 (0.527) | 0.266 (0.258) | 0.140 (0.240) | |
— | −0.021 *** (0.006) | — | 0.005 (0.019) | — | −0.027 *** (0.009) | |
— | 0.085 (0.079) | — | 0.112 (0.243) | — | 0.163 (0.111) | |
— | 0.154 (0.122) | — | −0.550 (0.376) | — | 0.343 ** (0.171) | |
— | −0.016 (0.027) | — | −0.067 (0.083) | — | −0.010 (0.038) | |
— | −0.057 (0.182) | — | 0.237 (0.559) | — | 0.184 (0.255) | |
— | 0.249 *** (0.057) | — | 0.667 *** (0.174) | — | 0.218 *** (0.079) | |
— | 0.190 ** (0.083) | — | −0.699 *** (0.255) | — | 0.292 ** (0.116) | |
— | 0.006 (0.006) | — | 0.024 (0.017) | — | 0.001 (0.008) | |
— | 0.032 (0.038) | — | 0.148 (0.116) | — | −0.154 *** (0.053) | |
— | −0.004 (0.011) | — | −0.053 (0.033) | — | 0.000 (0.015) | |
— | −0.240 (0.334) | — | −2.711 *** (1.024) | — | 0.183 (0.466) | |
— | 0.743 *** (0.199) | — | −0.134 (0.610) | — | 0.886 *** (0.277) | |
— | 0.355 *** (0.087) | — | −0.470 * (0.266) | — | 0.378 *** (0.121) | |
Cons | 10.970 *** (0.077) | 2.300 (1.902) | 5.484 *** (0.223) | 10.230 * (5.839) | 10.600 *** (0.105) | 0.420 (2.657) |
N | 506 | 506 | 506 | 506 | 506 | 506 |
Adj R2 | 0.002 | 0.237 | 0.003 | 0.126 | 0.000 | 0.197 |
Variables | Dependent Variable: RTI (ln) | Dependent Variable: RFI (ln) | Dependent Variable: ROI (ln) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Model 7 | Model 8 | Model 9 | Model 10 | Model 11 | Model 12 | |
0.357 ** (0.180) | 0.345 ** (0.174) | −1.082 ** (0.518) | −0.547 ** (0.335) | 1.082 ** (0.518) | 0.052 (0.243) | |
Control | — | Yes | — | Yes | — | Yes |
Cons | 11.07 *** (0.086) | 2.241 (1.897) | 6.018 *** (0.246) | 9.944 * (5.835) | 6.018 *** (0.246) | 0.364 (2.656) |
N | 506 | 506 | 506 | 506 | 506 | 506 |
Adj R2 | −0.001 | 0.239 | 0.007 | 0.126 | 0.007 | 0.196 |
Variables | Dependent Variable: RTI (ln) | Dependent Variable: RFI (ln) | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
25% | 50% | 75% | 90% | 25% | 50% | 75% | 90% | |
Model 13 | Model 14 | Model 15 | Model 16 | Model 17 | Model 18 | Model 19 | Model 20 | |
0.019 (0.140) | 0.162 (0.130) | 0.229 * (0.181) | 0.341 ** (0.181) | 0.911 (1.327) | 0.866 (0.719) | −0.173 (0.399) | −0.131 (0.507) | |
0.003 (0.168) | 0.250 * (0.161) | 0.980 ** (0.452) | 0.461 ** (0.228) | 0.061 (1.028) | 0.002 (0.748) | −0.601 (0.467) | −0.898 ** (0.424) | |
Control | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Cons | 5.132 *** (1.437) | 5.280 *** (1.447) | 4.373 ** (1.854) | 4.693 (3.527) | 16.130 (12.770) | 9.025 (9.098) | 5.143 (4.630) | −0.248 (5.112) |
N | 506 | 506 | 506 | 506 | 506 | 506 | 506 | 506 |
R2 | 0.242 | 0.214 | 0.201 | 0.220 | 0.044 | 0.093 | 0.108 | 0.137 |
Variables | Dependent Variable: RTI (ln) | Dependent Variable: RFI (ln) | Dependent Variable: ROI (ln) | Dependent Variable: RTI (ln) | Dependent Variable: RFI (ln) | Dependent Variable: ROI (ln) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Model 21 | Model 22 | Model 23 | Model 24 | Model 25 | Model 26 | |
0.364 ** (0.159) | 0.427 (0.583) | 0.153 (0.265) | 0.314 * (0.216) | 0.272 (0.286) | −0.152 (0.297) | |
0.282 ** (0.132) | −0.596 ** (0.461) | 0.145 (0.271) | 0.327 * (0.157) | −0.433 * (0.304) | 0.296 (0.310) | |
Control | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Cons | 4.632 *** (1.302) | 10.830 * (5.892) | −0.364 (2.681) | 13.040 *** (3.097) | 0.919 (2.864) | 9.201 *** (3.038) |
N | 506 | 506 | 506 | 506 | 506 | 506 |
Adj R2 | 0.293 | 0.178 | 0.178 | 0.199 | 0.200 | 0.199 |
Variables | Dependent Variable: RTI (ln) | Dependent Variable: RFI (ln) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Scale = 1 | Scale = 2 | Scale = 3 | Scale = 1 | Scale = 2 | Scale = 3 | |
Model 27 | Model 28 | Model 29 | Model 30 | Model 31 | Model 32 | |
Laborin | 0.433 (0.308) | 0.473 ** (0.382) | 0.342 ** (0.198) | −0.414 (1.027) | 1.309 (0.957) | −1.008 (1.070) |
Laborout | 0.997 ** (0.571) | 0.581 * (0.411) | 0.532 ** (0.359) | 0.263 (0.903) | 1.372 (1.030) | −2.497 ** (1.123) |
Control | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Cons | −2.436 (3.889) | −0.726 (4.355) | 6.600 ** (2.818) | 10.100 (12.980) | −9.495 (10.910) | 15.380 * (8.815) |
N | 166 | 171 | 169 | 166 | 171 | 169 |
R2 | 0.307 | 0.150 | 0.155 | 0.162 | 0.175 | 0.173 |
Variables | Dependent Variable: RTI (ln) | Dependent Variable: RFI (ln) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
= 0 | = 1 | = 0 | = 1 | |
Model 33 | Model 34 | Model 35 | Model 36 | |
0.228 ** (0.121) | 0.354 ** (0.147) | 0.002 (0.695) | 1.018 (1.187) | |
0.431 ** (0.234) | 0.126 (0.335) | −0.494 (0.712) | −1.184 ** (0.725) | |
Control | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Cons | 3.306 (2.301) | −2.515 (3.576) | 7.676 (7.012) | 2.160 (12.00) |
N | 364 | 142 | 364 | 142 |
R2 | 0.172 | 0.184 | 0.198 | 0.093 |
Variables | Dependent Variable: RTI (ln) | Dependent Variable: RFI (ln) | Dependent Variable: ROI (ln) | Dependent Variable: RTI (ln) | Dependent Variable: RFI (ln) | Dependent Variable: ROI (ln) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Model 37 | Model 38 | Model 39 | Model 40 | Model 41 | Model 42 | |
0.327 ** (0.192) | 0.371 (0.591) | 0.205 (0.269) | 0.267 * (0.171) | 0.135 (0.434) | 0.153 (0.123) | |
0.662 ** (0.310) | 0.742 (0.150) | 8.842 (15.540) | 0.432 ** (0.249) | 0.120 (0.978) | 0.343 (0.278) | |
Control | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
−9.929 (11.110) | −1.121 (34.170) | −8.704 (15.550) | — | — | — | |
Cons | −0.613 (3.701) | 9.803 (11.390) | −2.026 (5.180) | 5.045 (5.172) | 5.394 (289.700) | 0.142 (0.826) |
N | 506 | 506 | 506 | 506 | 506 | 506 |
R2 | 0.126 | 0.121 | 0.107 | 0.093 | 0.086 | 0.042 |
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Li, L.; Luo, X.; Liu, Y.; Liu, Y.; Liu, X. The Impact of Location of Labor Migration on Rural Households’ Income: Evidence from Jiangxi Province in China. Agriculture 2024, 14, 1458. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture14091458
Li L, Luo X, Liu Y, Liu Y, Liu X. The Impact of Location of Labor Migration on Rural Households’ Income: Evidence from Jiangxi Province in China. Agriculture. 2024; 14(9):1458. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture14091458
Chicago/Turabian StyleLi, Lishan, Xin Luo, Yanshan Liu, Yuan Liu, and Xiaojin Liu. 2024. "The Impact of Location of Labor Migration on Rural Households’ Income: Evidence from Jiangxi Province in China" Agriculture 14, no. 9: 1458. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture14091458