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Article

Exploring the Sensory and Volatile Profiles Associated with the Antioxidant Activity of Monovarietal Extra Virgin Olive Oil of the Leccio Del Corno Cultivar with Remarkable Resistance to the Bacterium Xylella fastidiosa

by
Maria Teresa Frangipane
1,*,
Lara Costantini
2,
Stefania Garzoli
3,
Nicolò Merendino
2 and
Riccardo Massantini
1,4
1
Department for Innovation in Biological, Agro-Food and Forest Systems (DIBAF), University of Tuscia, Via San Camillo de Lellis, 01100 Viterbo, Italy
2
Department of Ecological and Biological Sciences (DEB), Tuscia University, Largo dell’Università snc, 01100 Viterbo, Italy
3
Department of Chemistry and Technology of Drugs, Sapienza University of Rome, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy
4
Study Alpine Centre, University of Tuscia, Via Rovigo 7, 38050 Pieve Tesino, Italy
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Agriculture 2025, 15(6), 619; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15060619
Submission received: 13 February 2025 / Revised: 6 March 2025 / Accepted: 12 March 2025 / Published: 14 March 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensory Properties Analysis for Quality Evaluation of Agricultural Product)
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Abstract

:
In recent decades, the production of extra virgin olive oil has doubled, with a high export value. In Italy, the large number of olive varieties, with around 500 registered, allows the production of highly valued monovarietal oils with a significant impact on sensory profiles. Due to its excellent adaptation to the cold and its remarkable resistance to the bacterial pathogen Xylella fastidiosa (subsp. pauca), the sensory and volatile profiles of the Leccio del Corno monovarietal oil were investigated in relation to quality and antioxidant activity. Our study has revealed that Leccio del Corno oil has high antioxidant activity (TPC: 3.29 mg GAE/g, FRAP: 1.31 mmol Fe2+/g, ABTS•+: 1.27 mmol TE/g). This gives it high nutritional value for human consumption, and increases its ability to preserve itself over time. From a sensory point of view, it presents a specific sensory imprint with pleasant notes of almond (3 ± 0.07), artichoke (2.4 ± 0.06), and, to a slight extent, tomato (1 ± 0.16). Regarding the volatile component, 2-hexenal (E) was the most abundant compound in our research, accounting for 41.0%. The use of the Leccio del Corno variety, with its remarkable resistance to the bacterium Xylella fastidiosa, for the production of a monovarietal extra virgin olive oil of excellent quality could, therefore, be a valid alternative for restoring production capacity while increasing olive biodiversity in areas affected by this bacterium.

1. Introduction

Many factors, such as the cultivar, the environmental conditions in the orchard, the ripeness of the olives, the condition of the fruit, and the processing methods used, influence the quality of extra virgin olive oil [1]. Extra virgin olive oils contain compounds that not only play an important protective role but also have nutritional value. The antioxidant heritage extends the shelf life of extra virgin olive oil and is fundamental for its health properties [2,3]. In Italy, the high number of olive cultivars, with around 500 registered [4], allows for the obtaining of monovarietal oils of great value, and important impacts on sensory profiles [5].
The Leccio del Corno is a variety of olive tree that was selected for its exceptional resistance to the low temperatures near the “Corno” farm in the municipality of San Casciano Val di Pesa (FI) in Italy [6]. The plant is moderately vigorous with a broad crown. The leaves are medium in size and dark green. Leccio del Corno is a self-pollinating variety; Pendolino, Frantoio, and Piangente are excellent pollinators. The fruit is medium-sized and ovoid in shape (Figure 1).
Ripening is late and scalar. The fruit is green at harvest. Leccio del Corno is a rustic plant of great adaptability with good resistance to adverse climatic and phytosanitary events. Its productivity is average and constant. Our research was focused on the Leccio del Corno variety, not only for its excellent adaptation to low temperatures but also for its remarkable resistance to the bacterium Xylella fastidiosa subsp. pauca [7,8]. For this reason, the Italian Ministry of Agriculture, Food Sovereignty and Forestry (Masaf) [9], with a note prot. n° 0179664, dated 19 April 2024, authorized planting of the Leccio del Corno variety, which is tolerant to the pauca subspecies [10], in an area infected by Xylella fastidiosa subsp. pauca. Use of the Leccio del Corno variety could represent a valid alternative for restoring production capacity while increasing olive biodiversity in the area infected by this bacterium. In addition, little is known about the volatile components, the sensory properties, and the antioxidant capacity of this monovarietal virgin olive oil. Therefore, our research aims to characterize the volatile chemical composition and antioxidant and sensory properties of this product in order to valorize it. The global quality of the oil is closely linked to its stability against oxidation, which depends first and foremost on the content of antioxidants. In this respect, a recent study has shown that Leccio del Corno is a variety with medium oxidative stability [11]. Given the positive characteristics found in the few existing studies on Leccio Del Corno monovarietal extra virgin olive oils [1,12], the main objective of this study was to increase knowledge by analyzing sensory and volatile profiles related to quality and antioxidant activity.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Sampling

The research was conducted on a monovarietal olive oil obtained 100% from Leccio del Corno (LC), a variety of olive grown in the Lazio region (Canino, Viterbo), in the center of Italy. The olive trees are located on volcanic soil at an altitude of 200/350 m above sea level. This area is purely agricultural and ecologically intact. The olives, protected from parasites by integrated pest control, are pressed in plants with a daily capacity of 6000 quintals. The olives were hand-picked from the tree at the right degree of ripeness and delivered, within 24 h, to the mill. The olives were defoliated and washed, then the drupes were crushed in a hammer mill, and the pastes obtained were malaxed in two vertical tank kneaders equipped with a heating jacket. After malaxation, the extra virgin olive oil was extracted with a two-phase decanter (i.e., no water was added) and filtered with a filter press. Samples were analyzed immediately after oil production, without any conservation treatment. All analyses were performed in triplicate.

2.2. Sensory Analysis

The sensory analysis was carried out by a professional tasting panel recognized by the Italian Ministry, according to the IOC, 2018 [13], and European Union, 2022 [14], guidelines. Each test had to be conducted by 8 qualified assessors under the direction of a panel leader. In addition to commercial classification, which is the main objective of the EU sensory method 2568/91 [15], and subsequent revisions, made using the corresponding profile sheet (Figure 2), the sensory characteristics of the analyzed oils were described in full.
The oil samples for tasting were served to the panelists at a temperature of 28 °C ± 2 °C for the duration of the test. This temperature was chosen because the organoleptic differences are more noticeable than at room temperature, and because there is less volatilization of the aromatic compounds in these oils at lower temperatures. Medians of the sensory data and robust coefficients of variation were calculated. In order to establish a common vocabulary of descriptive terms, a training session was held with the panelists. Judges then selected the following: olive fruity, bitter, pungent, grass, almond, artichoke and tomato. Using the selected descriptors, a quantitative descriptive analysis (QDA) was carried out, based on a 0–10 scale. Each descriptor was scored on a range with intervals ranging from 0 (absence of the descriptor) to 10 (maximum intensity of the descriptor) [16]. The International Olive Oil Council (IOC) Standards, Methods and Guides for Organoleptic Analysis were followed for all procedures in studies involving human participants.

2.3. Determination of Fatty Acid Composition

The fatty acid content of the virgin oil sample was determined by the GC/MS technique after lipid extraction and transmethylation, according to ISO 12966-2 (2011) and ISO 5508 (1999). Four drops of oil were placed in a 20 mL vial. To these, 2 mL of methanol was added. The transmethylation occurred with the addition of BF3 by heating at 70 °C for approximately 10 min. The extraction of the fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs) was performed with the addition of n-hexane.
Analyses were carried out using a gas chromatograph coupled to a Clarus 500 model mass spectrometer (Perkin Elmer, Waltham, MA, USA) equipped with a flame ionization detector (FID). In split mode (1:20), 2 μL of each sample was injected into the column (Varian Factor Four VF-5). The GC conditions used were as follows: The injector was set at 280 °C and the oven temperature was programmed to increase from 170 °C, at a rate of 3 °C/min, to 260 °C, where it would stay for 15 min. The mass spectrometer was operated at 70 eV (EI) in full scan mode. The range of m/z was 40–550. The temperature of the ion source and connecting parts was set at 180 °C and 200 °C, respectively. Fatty acid identification was performed by calculating Linear Retention Indices (LRIs) using a series of alkane standards analyzed under the same conditions as the samples by matching their mass spectra to those stored in the Wiley 2.2 and Nist 11 mass spectra library databases. The LRIs were then compared with the retention data that were available and reported in the literature. The peak areas of the FID signal were used to calculate the relative concentrations of the components expressed as percentages without the use of an internal standard or any factor correction. All analyses were carried out in triplicate.

2.4. Extraction and Determination of Total Polyphenol Content and Antioxidant Capacity

2.4.1. Extract Preparations for Total Polyphenol Compounds (TPC) and Total Antioxidant Capacity (TAC)

The extracts for the total polyphenol compounds (TPC) and total antioxidant capacity (TAC) analyses were acquired according to the method of Olmo-Garcia et al. [17] with slight modifications. In brief, 10 g of sample was extracted overnight in the dark with 60 mL of MeOH/water solution (60:40, v/v). The mixture was then centrifuged at 5000× g (ALC PK121R centrifuge; Bodanchimica s.r.l., Cagliari, Italy) for 10 min at 4 °C. The supernatant was collected and used for the determination of TPC and TAC.

2.4.2. Determination of Total Phenolic Compounds (TPC)

The TPC was determined using the Folin–Ciocalteu method, as modified by Costantini et al. [18] and adapted for 96-wells plates. In brief, 30 µL of deionized water was combined with 10 µL of ethanolic extract, 10 µL of Folin–Ciocalteau reagent, and 200 µL of 30% Na2CO3. The absorbance of the mixture was measured at 725 nm using a plate reader (Infinite 2000, Tecan, Salzburg, Austria). A gallic acid standard curve was prepared, and the results were expressed as mg of gallic acid equivalents (GAEs) per gram of the sample.

2.4.3. Determination of Total Antioxidant Capacity (TAC)

The TAC was evaluated using two different methods: the ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), and 2,2 -azino-bis (3-ethyl-benzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS•+) radical scavenging activity assays, as outlined below.
The FRAP assay was conducted following the method described by Benzie and Strain [19], adapted for 96-well plates and an automatic reader (Infinite 2000, Tecan, Salzburg, Austria). This method is based on the reduction of the Fe3+-2,4,6-tripyridyl-s-triazine (TPTZ) complex to its ferrous form at a low pH. In brief, 160 µL of FRAP assay solution (composed of 20 mM ferric chloride solution, 10 mM TPTZ solution, and 0.3 M acetate buffer at pH 3.6) was freshly prepared daily, mixed with 10 µL of the sample, standard, or blank, and added to each well of a 96-well plate. Absorbance was measured at 595 nm at 37 °C after 30 min of incubation. The results were expressed as mmol Fe2+ equivalents per gram.
The ABTS•+ radical scavenging activity was assessed using the OxiSelectTM Trolox Equivalent Antioxidant Capacity (TEAC) Assay Kit (ABTS) (Cell Biolabs INC. DBA ITALIA SRLVia Umbria 1020090 Segrate, Italy ) according to the manufacturer’s instructions. Absorbance was recorded at 405 nm using an automatic reader (Infinite 2000, Tecan, Salzburg, Austria). A Trolox standard curve was prepared, and the antioxidant capacity was expressed as μmol of Trolox equivalents (TE) per gram of DW.

2.5. Determination of the Volatile Fraction

The method for determining the volatile profile follows Brki’c Bubola et al. [20] with minor changes. Using the SPME sampling technique, the volatile profile of the virgin oil samples was described. Approximately 3 g of oil was placed in a 20 mL glass vial with a PTFE-coated silicone septum. A Supelco (Bellefonte, PA, USA) SPME instrument with a 1 cm fiber coated with 50/30 μm DVB/CAR/PDMS (divinylbenzene/carboxene/polydimethylsiloxane) was selected for extraction. Prior to use, the fiber was conditioned at 270 °C for 30 min. The equilibration time for all samples was obtained by heating to 40 °C for 10 min. After this time, the fiber was exposed to the headspace of the samples for 40 min at 40 °C to capture and concentrate the volatiles. Finally, the SPME fiber was inserted into the GC injector maintained at 250 °C in splitless mode for desorption of the collected components. Analyses were performed using the same equipment used to determine the fatty acid profile. The capillary column was Restek Stabilwax. To characterize the volatile composition of extra virgin olive oil samples, the oven conditions were set as follows: initiated at 40 °C and held for 10 min, then increased to 200 °C at 2 °C/min, then increased to 250 °C at 2 °C/min and held for 10 min. Helium was used as a carrier gas at a constant rate of 1 mL/min. The identification and quantification of the detected compounds were performed as described in the previous Section 2.3.

2.6. Statistical Analyses

Analyses were carried out in triplicate. XLSTAT Premium Version 2024 (Addinsoft, Paris, France) was used to perform all statistical tests with one-way ANOVA. Tukey’s least significant difference test was applied to determine statistical differences between means at a significance level of p < 0.05.

3. Results

3.1. Sensory Analysis

From a sensory point of view, the samples of the monovarietal Leccio del Corno oil analyzed in this study did not show any organoleptic defects, and therefore they belong to the category of extra virgin olive oils according to European Union standards [14]. The evaluation of positive sensory attributes is strongly related to the nutritional value of extra virgin olive oil [2,21], which is why it is important. The organoleptic characteristics of the Leccio del Corno oil from Lazio, shown in Figure 3, are characterized by medium intensity olive fruitiness (5.5 ± 0.13), and bitter and pungent notes (5 ± 0.10), together with pleasant grass (2.8 ± 0.09), almond (3 ± 0.07), artichoke (2.4 ± 0.06) and slight tomato (1 ± 0.16) notes.
A study carried out on the same Leccio del Corno cultivar [1] showed that oils produced in both Tuscany and Emilia-Romagna had high intensities of agreeable notes of almond and artichoke. These results are in line with those of Jukić Špika et al. [22], who emphasized that sensory traits are the most important features of a variety. A product characterization was carried out to analyze sensory data and to define the sensory imprint of the Leccio del Corno monovarietal oil. This analysis provides the descriptors that best distinguish the product. Figure 4 is a very useful tool for visualizing the defined aspects of the oil sample.
The light blue color corresponds to significantly positive coefficients, and red to coefficients with a significant negative value. Leccio del Corno extra virgin olive oil is characterized by the presence of almond and artichoke in its aroma. Finally, to assess the functioning of the panel, clustering of the assessors was performed. Clustering is performed on standardized data to eliminate possible scale and position effects. This method gives an indication of the agreement between the raters and, more generally, between a rater and the overall view of the panel. As can be seen from Figure 5, panelist 1 is the only one who stands out for having rated the product differently than all the other assessors. Panelists connected by matching vertical lines belong to the same cluster.

3.2. Fatty Acid Composition

As is well known from the literature, the fatty acid composition of extra virgin olive oil plays a key role in its health benefits [23]. Previous studies [24] have already highlighted how the cultivar is decisive for the fatty acid profile due to the different enzymatic activity of the lipoxygenase pathway, which is responsible for the biosynthesis of the aromatic compounds of extra virgin olive oils and, consequently, for their sensory characterization. The fatty acid composition of the samples analyzed (Table 1) highlighted the high percentage of oleic acid (80.8%). These values, in agreement with Oteri et al. [12], give an added value to the monovarietal Leccio del Corno oil, since the high content of oleic acid in extra virgin olive oils also contributes to the oxidative stability [25]. Another positive feature of the monovarietal Leccio del Corno oil is the low percentage of linoleic acid (3.4%). On the other hand, oxidative stability is positively correlated with oleic acid and negatively correlated with linoleic acid according to some researchers [23]. Furthermore, a study carried out by Rotondi et al. [1] showed that for Leccio del Corno extra virgin olive oil, higher levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids were found in samples from higher altitudes.

3.3. Antioxidant Profile

3.3.1. Total Phenolic Compounds (TPC) Content

Table 2 shows that the analyzed Leccio del Corno monovarietal extra virgin olive oil samples are rich in total phenolics (TPC), with values of 3.29 mg GAE/g. This amount disagrees with that of Dugo et al. [26] who found an average total phenolic content of 0.33 mg GAE/g. On the other hand, it is well known that the phenolic content of extra virgin olive oils can differ according to cultivar, weather conditions, degree of ripeness of the drupes, and processing techniques [5,27,28,29].
Our results suggest that they are highly nutritious and organoleptically valuable. This aspect is particularly important and is in line with the results of the sensory analysis. In fact, the present sample (Figure 2) also shows a high median for the bitter and pungent attributes (5 and 5, respectively), characters that correlate with total polyphenols. The latest research [30] confirmed that phenolic compounds account for the bitter and pungent organoleptic characteristics of extra virgin olive oil.

3.3.2. Total Antioxidant Capacity Determination

The FRAP and ABTS•+ tests used to determine antioxidant activities showed that the Leccio del Corno monovarietal oil had very high FRAP (1.31 mmol Fe2+/g) and ABTS•+ (1.27 mmol TE/g) values (Table 2) compared to other extra virgin olive oils [26]. This can be seen from the data that have been extrapolated from the literature. [31,32]. This aspect is particularly important as the high antioxidant capacity and total phenolic content of Leccio del Corno monovarietal oil enhances its nutritional potential and increases its shelf life. Finally, it is worth noting that previous research has shown a positive correlation between antioxidant activity (determined by the ABTS•+ test) and total polyphenol content [33,34].

3.4. Volatile Compounds

As far as the volatile component is concerned, in our research, 2-hexenal (E) was the most abundant compound (Table 3), with a percentage of 41.0%. This is supported by the studies of a group of researchers [35,36] who found that the presence of 2-hexenal (E) is not only responsible for the green and fruity sensory characteristics, but is also associated with bitter and almond notes. Furthermore, the positive sensory attributes of extra virgin olive oils are directly related to the volatile compounds C5 and C6 released in the lipoxygenase pathway. Their concentrations are highly correlated with the fruity attribute [30], just as the average percentage (16.5%) of the compound 3-hexenal (Z)- found in the oil of Leccio del Corno (Table 3) corresponds with the pleasurable notes of grass. As can be seen in the previous section dealing with sensory analysis (Figure 3), both almond and grass are evident (3 and 2.8, respectively). On the other hand, it has long been known that cultivar is the most important determinant of olive oil volatiles and a correlation between volatiles and sensory profiles has been shown [37,38].

4. Conclusions

In conclusion, our work has revealed the specificity and peculiarity of the sensory characteristics of the monovarietal extra virgin olive oil Leccio del Corno. A specific imprint was also found on the volatile chemical composition of the oil. In addition, Leccio del Corno oil has high antioxidant activity (FRAP 1.31 mmol Fe2+/g and ABTS•+ 1.27 mmol TE/g), which gives it a high nutritional value. Equally important, the samples analyzed of Leccio del Corno monovarietal extra virgin olive oil are rich in total phenolics, with values of 3.29 mg GAE/g.
The results obtained could be very useful for producers who, when producing Leccio del Corno monovarietal olive oil, will be able to guarantee not only the high quality but also the resistance of this cultivar to harsh environmental conditions and bacterial attacks [10]. With the knowledge gained from our findings, olive growers will be more motivated to cultivate the Leccio del Corno cultivar for extra virgin olive oil production. There is a need for further research to investigate the possible pedoclimatic and environmental influences on the cultivar in different years.

Author Contributions

All authors contributed to the writing of the manuscript. Conceptualization, review and editing, M.T.F.; formal analysis and writing, L.C.; formal analysis, S.G.; supervision, R.M. and N.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable for studies not involving humans or animals.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable for studies not involving humans.

Data Availability Statement

The data presented in this study are available on request from the co-author, Maria Teresa Frangipane.

Acknowledgments

The author gratefully acknowledge the President and the Director of the Oleificio Sociale Cooperativo of Canino (Viterbo, Italy) for their precious contribution.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 1. Leccio del Corno olive tree variety (Selection of PDO and PGI extra virgin olive oils, Tuscany, 2020) [6].
Figure 1. Leccio del Corno olive tree variety (Selection of PDO and PGI extra virgin olive oils, Tuscany, 2020) [6].
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Figure 2. Virgin olive oil sensory evaluation profile sheet [13].
Figure 2. Virgin olive oil sensory evaluation profile sheet [13].
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Figure 3. Sensory profile of Leccio del Corno monovarietal extra virgin olive oil.
Figure 3. Sensory profile of Leccio del Corno monovarietal extra virgin olive oil.
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Figure 4. Coefficients of the analysis of variance models of the Leccio del Corno monovarietal extra virgin olive oil.
Figure 4. Coefficients of the analysis of variance models of the Leccio del Corno monovarietal extra virgin olive oil.
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Figure 5. Clustering of the assessors (standardized).
Figure 5. Clustering of the assessors (standardized).
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Table 1. Fatty acid content (percentage mean value ± standard deviation) of monovarietal extra virgin olive oil from the Leccio Del Corno cultivar (LC) as determined by GC–MS.
Table 1. Fatty acid content (percentage mean value ± standard deviation) of monovarietal extra virgin olive oil from the Leccio Del Corno cultivar (LC) as determined by GC–MS.
N°COMPONENT 1LRI 2LRI 3(%) 4
1capric acid, C10:0136813730.5 ± 0.02
2palmitic acid, C16:01965196211.0 ± 0.65
3linoleic acid, C18:2n6212021233.4 ± 0.05
4oleic acid, C18:1n92136214180.8 ± 1.32
5stearic acid, C18:0217521804.3 ± 0.08
SUM 100.0
Saturated FAs 15.8
Unsaturated FAs 84.2
1 The components are reported according to their elution order on the capillary column (VF-5ms). 2 Linear Retention Indices measured on VF-5ms column. 3 Linear Retention indices from literature. 4 Percentage mean values of Fatty acids content. Data are means ± standard deviation of three (n = 3) replicates.
Table 2. Total phenolic compounds (TPC) and total antioxidant capacity (ABTS•+ and FRAP) of monovarietal extra virgin olive oil from the Leccio Del Corno cultivar.
Table 2. Total phenolic compounds (TPC) and total antioxidant capacity (ABTS•+ and FRAP) of monovarietal extra virgin olive oil from the Leccio Del Corno cultivar.
SampleTPCABTS•+FRAP
mg GAE/gmmol TE/gmmol Fe2+/g
Leccio Del Corno3.29 ± 0.051.27 ± 0.061.31 ± 0.005
TPC: total phenolic compounds; ABTS•+: radical scavenging activity assays; FRAP: ferric reducing antioxidant power; TE: Trolox equivalent. Data are means ± standard deviation of three (n = 3) replicates.
Table 3. Main volatile compounds (average percentage value ± standard deviation) of Leccio del Corno monovarietal extra virgin olive oil.
Table 3. Main volatile compounds (average percentage value ± standard deviation) of Leccio del Corno monovarietal extra virgin olive oil.
N°COMPONENT 1LRI 2LRI 3A (%) 4
13-hexenal, (Z)-1120112416.5 ± 0.09
22-pentenal, 2-methyl-118511904.5 ± 0.02
32-hexenal, (E)-1215120941.0 ± 0.22
4nonanal139013936.9 ± 0.06
5propanoic acid154715409.3 ± 0.05
6hexanoic acid, 2-methyl-1761175716.4 ± 0.18
7trans-farnesol235523615.4 ± 0.03
SUM 100.0
1 The components are reported according to their elution order on polar column. 2 Linear Retention Indices measured on polar column. 3 Linear Retention indices from literature. 4 Percentage mean values of Fatty acids content. Data are means ± standard deviation of three (n = 3) replicates.
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MDPI and ACS Style

Frangipane, M.T.; Costantini, L.; Garzoli, S.; Merendino, N.; Massantini, R. Exploring the Sensory and Volatile Profiles Associated with the Antioxidant Activity of Monovarietal Extra Virgin Olive Oil of the Leccio Del Corno Cultivar with Remarkable Resistance to the Bacterium Xylella fastidiosa. Agriculture 2025, 15, 619. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15060619

AMA Style

Frangipane MT, Costantini L, Garzoli S, Merendino N, Massantini R. Exploring the Sensory and Volatile Profiles Associated with the Antioxidant Activity of Monovarietal Extra Virgin Olive Oil of the Leccio Del Corno Cultivar with Remarkable Resistance to the Bacterium Xylella fastidiosa. Agriculture. 2025; 15(6):619. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15060619

Chicago/Turabian Style

Frangipane, Maria Teresa, Lara Costantini, Stefania Garzoli, Nicolò Merendino, and Riccardo Massantini. 2025. "Exploring the Sensory and Volatile Profiles Associated with the Antioxidant Activity of Monovarietal Extra Virgin Olive Oil of the Leccio Del Corno Cultivar with Remarkable Resistance to the Bacterium Xylella fastidiosa" Agriculture 15, no. 6: 619. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15060619

APA Style

Frangipane, M. T., Costantini, L., Garzoli, S., Merendino, N., & Massantini, R. (2025). Exploring the Sensory and Volatile Profiles Associated with the Antioxidant Activity of Monovarietal Extra Virgin Olive Oil of the Leccio Del Corno Cultivar with Remarkable Resistance to the Bacterium Xylella fastidiosa. Agriculture, 15(6), 619. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15060619

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