Gliricidia Hay Replacing Ground Corn and Cottonseed Cake in Total Mixed Rations Silages Based on Spineless Cactus
by
, , and
Domingos Alves Gonçalves Junior
1, 
Gilvan Anésio Ribeiro Lima
1,
Alberto Tomo Chirinda
2,
Tarcizio Vilas Boas Santos Silva
3,
Rodrigo Brito Saldanha
4,
Raiane Barbosa Mendes
1,
Keyla Rocha Ribeiro
1,
Henry Daniel Ruiz Alba
1,
Maria Leonor Garcia Melo Lopes de Araújo
1,
Douglas dos Santos Pina
1,
Carlindo Santos Rodrigues
5 and
Gleidson Giordano Pinto de Carvalho
1,* 1
Department of Animal Science, Universidade Federal da Bahia, Av. Milton Santos, 500, Salvador 40170110, Brazil
2
Instituto Federal de Educação, Ciência e Tecnologia Baiano, Campus Teixeira de Freitas, Teixeira de Freitas 45985970, Brazil
3
Instituto Federal de Educação, Ciência e Tecnologia Baiano, Campus Santa Inês, Santa Inês 45320000, Brazil
4
Instituto Federal de Educação, Ciência e Tecnologia Baiano, Campus Alagoinhas, Alagoinhas 48007656, Brazil
5
Instituto Federal de Educação, Ciência e Tecnologia Baiano, Campus Uruçuca, Uruçuca 45680000, Brazil
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Agriculture 2025, 15(8), 873; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15080873
Submission received: 7 March 2025
/
Revised: 9 April 2025
/
Accepted: 14 April 2025
/
Published: 16 April 2025
(This article belongs to the Section Farm Animal Production)
Abstract
:This study was conducted to evaluate the effects of including gliricidia hay (0, 5, 10, 15, and 20% fresh matter—FM), replacing ground corn and cottonseed cake, on the quality of total mixed rations silages based on spineless cactus. Twenty-five experimental silos were distributed in a completely randomized design experiment (five treatments—five replications). Ash, neutral and acid detergent fiber, and hemicellulose contents increased linearly, whereas the non-fibrous and total carbohydrates decreased (p < 0.05). Crude protein and ether extract contents were quadratically influenced (p < 0.05). The pH values and acetic acid concentrations increased, whereas the lactic acid concentration decreased linearly (p < 0.05). Ammoniacal concentration was influenced quadratically (p < 0.05). Decreasing linear effects were observed on the maximum and minimum temperatures and thermal amplitude (p < 0.05). A quadratic effect was observed on forage losses (p < 0.05). Effluent losses decreased, and dry matter recovery was influenced quadratically (p < 0.05). The inclusion of up to 15.1% gliricidia hay in the production of total mixed ration silages based on spineless cactus preserves adequate standards of chemical composition (15.6% crude protein) and fermentation profile, while decreasing forage losses (7.3% FM) without compromising dry matter recovery and aerobic stability.
1. Introduction
The pursuit of alternative feed sources for ruminant nutrition is crucial, not only for fostering more sustainable animal production from both environmental and economic perspectives, but also for ensuring enhanced human food security [1]. In semi-arid regions characterized by extended drought periods, alternative feed sources are essential due to the prevalence of extensive production systems. These systems experience a reduction in both the quantity and quality of forage during drier periods, resulting in decreased productivity and performance [2].
Supplementation with concentrates during the dry season is generally not a cost-effective practice due to the high feeding costs associated with the use of expensive ingredients such as ground corn and soybean meal, especially during periods of forage scarcity in these regions.
Using low-cost feeds that are adaptable to the drought periods characteristic of semi-arid regions, with productive and nutritional potential, is an alternative with sustainable viability. From this perspective, forage palm is widely used as animal feed in semi-arid regions due to their adaptability to these environments [3,4]. Despite presenting interesting nutritional characteristics for livestock feed, forage cactus, such as spineless cactus (Nopalea cochenillifera Salm Dyck), has low levels of dry matter (DM, 6.37%), crude protein (CP, 5.42%), and neutral detergent fiber (NDF, 22.05%) [5].
Spineless cactus can be fed to animals fresh, almost immediately after being harvested [6] or in the form of silage [4], constituting an important source of energy, water [6,7] and non-fiber carbohydrates (NFCs), which include galactose, arabinose, xylose, fructose, and, especially, pectin [8]. However, due to its low nutritional content of CP and NDF, this feed source does not fully satisfy the nutritional requirements of animals. Therefore, it is essential to explore alternatives to enhance spineless cactus silage, such as the use of forage consortia with other feed sources adapted to the semi-arid region for silage production. As Matias et al. [4] point out, the use of protein ingredients such as maniçoba (14.5% CP) to ensile tuna improves the nutritional quality and fermentative characteristics of the silage.
Some of the main legumes used in the Brazilian semi-arid region are gliricidia (Gliricidia sepium), catingueira (Caesalpinia bracteosa), “sabiá” (Mimosa caesalpiniifolia Benth) and “catanduva” (Piptadenia moniliformis Benth), due to important characteristics for animal production, such as perenniality, high CP content (>16%), and average rumen dry matter degradability of 50–60% DM [9,10].
Considering the various possibilities of forage associations to be used in silage production, gliricidia emerges as an alternative because it is a legume adapted to semi-arid conditions and has multiple uses in agro-silvicultural systems, as a protein source in diet supplementation, at low cost, for ruminants [11].
As described by Costa et al. [12], gliricidia has desirable characteristics in the composition of its leaves, with average contents of 23.1% DM, 24.1% CP, and 38.8% NDF. The CP content stands out for presenting above 7%, which is the minimum necessary to ensure the balance of rumen microorganisms, promoting the correct functioning of the rumen [13]. According to Lemos et al. [14], the use of gliricidia hay promotes an approximately 50% increase in DM intake and average daily gain in feedlot lambs.
In this context, gliricidia hay can serve as a complement to spineless cactus in silage production, functioning as an absorbent additive that enhances the DM, CP, and NDF content of the resulting silage. Furthermore, it will improve the fermentative and nutritional characteristics of the silage, thereby increasing the overall efficiency of the process [15].
To achieve optimal productivity efficiency, a diet should be formulated to contain the ideal nutritional characteristics that promote maximum productive efficiency [16]. For this reason, ground corn, cottonseed cake, and soybean meal are commonly used as the primary ingredients in concentrate production for their nutritive characteristics [17,18]. However, gliricidia hay emerges as an excellent feed alternative due to its low cost and its ability to replace expensive ingredients in the production of high-quality diets. Therefore, further research is required to determine the nutritional potential of these feed sources [11].
In light of the above, and with the aim of producing silages from plant species adapted to semi-arid regions that maintain the nutritional quality necessary to meet the needs of ruminants, we hypothesize that the inclusion of up to 20% gliricidia hay (% fresh matter—FM) can replace ground corn and cottonseed cake in the production of total mixed ration silages based on spineless cactus. This inclusion is expected to improve the fermentation process while preserving the ideal nutritional quality of the final product. Therefore, this study was conducted with the objective of evaluating the chemical composition, fermentation profile and losses, microbial population, and aerobic stability of total mixed ration silages based on spineless cactus, with increasing levels of gliricidia hay replacing ground corn and cottonseed cake.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Location
The cultivation and harvesting of forages, along with the making of total mixed ration silages, were conducted in the Instituto Federal de Educação, Ciência e Tecnologia Baiano, Campus Santa Inês, Bahia, Brazil. Based on the Köppen–Geiger classification, the climate type of the municipality is tropical savannah (Aw). Temperatures usually range from 20 °C to 24 °C throughout the year, but they can rarely fall to 12 °C or can increase as high as 34 °C. The average annual rainfall of ~853 mm.
After filling, sealing, and weighing, the silos were taken and stored in the Forage Laboratory at the Experimental Farm of São Gonçalo dos Campos of the School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science of the Universidade Federal da Bahia. The farm is located at Km 174 of the BR 101 highway, Mercês city, Municipality of São Gonçalo dos Campos—BA, at the coordinates 12°23′57.5″ south latitude and 38°52′44.6″ west longitude, located at a distance of 108 km from Salvador.
2.2. Experimental Design and Spineless Cactus Silage Making
Twenty-five experimental silos (five treatments and five replications) were used in a completely randomized design. The cottonseed cake and the other concentrated ingredients (ground corn and gliricidia hay) were used in the formulation of the total mixed rations (Table 1).
The spineless cactus (forage cactus cv. “Miúda”) was harvested manually and processed in a stationary forage chopper. The chopper was adjusted to cut a particle size of approximately 2 cm for the spineless cactus. As for the gliricidia hay, the material for production was harvested from an established plantation of gliricidia approximately 6 months earlier on a farm in Brejões-BA, which is around 45 km from Santa Inês. The material was taken to the IF Baiano, Santa Inês Campus, where it was produced with dehydration by sunlight. It was then ground to cut a particle size of approximately 1 cm and stored in an airy shed.
Treatments referred to the gliricidia hay inclusion levels (0, 5, 10, 15, and 20%, FM). At the time of ensiling, spineless cactus was mixed with the ingredients in the respective proportions for each treatment until the mixtures became homogeneous. Thus, the material was manually mixed and promptly compacted with cement punches to achieve a final packing density of 700 kg of fresh matter/m3 in each experimental silo. The experimental diets, in the form of total mixed rations, were formulated to meet the sheep’s requirements for an average daily gain of 200 g as proposed by the NRC [19]. Table 2 describes the ingredient proportions of the treatments.
The silages were made in 25 experimental polyvinyl chloride silos, which measured 10 cm in diameter and 45 cm in height. All silos were adapted with a Bunsen valve adapted to the lid for the elimination of gases resulting from fermentation.
At the bottom of each mini-silo, 0.6 kg of dry sand was added and covered with non-woven fabric to separate it from the chopped forage (approximately 2.5 kg) and to capture and measure effluents. At the end of this process, all silos were closed using adhesive tape, weighed, and stored in a place (covered, dry, and ventilated) at room temperature until the opening 120 days after ensiling.
2.3. Fermentation Losses
Fermentative losses in the form of gases (GLs), effluents (ELs), and total (TLs) were quantified in the spineless cactus silage by weight difference through the following equations described by Jobim et al. [20]:
where: GL = gas losses (% dry matter); SWC = weight of full silo at closure (kg); SWO = weight of full silo at opening (kg); FMC = forage mass at silo closure (kg); and DMCC = forage dry matter content at silo closure (%).
where: EL = effluent losses (kg/ton FM); ESWO = weight of empty silo + sand at opening (kg); SW = weight of empty silo (kg); ESWC = weight of empty silo + sand at closure (kg); and FMC = forage mass at silo closure (kg).
where: TL = total loss of DM (%); DMi = initial DM. Weight of silo after filling—weight of the empty set, without forage, before filling (dry tare) × DM content of the forage in the silage and DMf = final DM. Weight of the silo before opening—weight of the empty set, without the forage, after opening the silos (wet tare) × DM content of the forage at the opening.
where: DMR = dry matter recovery rate (%); FMO = forage mass at silo opening (kg); DMO = DM at the opening (%); FMC = forage mass at silo closure (kg); and DMC = forage DM content at silo closure (%).
GL = [(SWC − SWO)/(FMC × DMCC)] × 100,
EL = [(ESWO − SW) − (ESWC − SW)] × 1000/FMC,
TL = [(DMi − DMf)] × 100/DMi,
DMR = (FMO × DMO) × 100/(FMC × DMC)
2.4. Sample Collection and Assessment of the Chemical Composition
After evaluating the fermentation losses, spineless cactus silage samples were collected from each silo and submitted to pre-dried in a forced ventilation oven (55 °C for 72 h) (INCT G-001/2) and processed in a Willey mill (Tecnal®, Piracicaba, São Paulo, Brazil) with a 1 mm sieve and analyzed for evaluations of DM (G-003/1), ash (INCT-CA M-001/2), CP (INCT-CA N-001/2), ether extract (EE; INCT-CA G-004/1), NDF (INCT F-001/2), and acid detergent fiber (ADF: INCT F-003/2) contents according to Detmann et al. [21]. Organic matter was estimated using the equation: 100—ash content. Non-fibrous carbohydrates (NFC) and total carbohydrates (TC) contents were calculated through the Weiss [22] and Sniffen et al. [23] equations, respectively.
2.5. Fermentation Profile of Total Mixed Ration Silages
The pH values were measured in all silos using a benchtop pH meter (KASVI,® São José dos Pinhais, Paraná, Brazil) according to the methodology proposed by Bolsen et al. [24]. The ammoniacal nitrogen (NH3-N) of the silages was determined using distillation with potassium hydroxide (KOH) 2N, as described by Fenner [25].
Organic acids (i.e., lactic, acetic, propionic, and butyric acids) were determined using the methodology described by Canale et al. [26] with the aid of a Shimadzu high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) system equipped with an SPD-M20A—UV DETECTOR (SHIMADZU) and an AMINEX HP87-H column (Bio-Rad Laboratories Ltd., São Paulo, Brazil) (30 cm × 4.5 mm in diameter). These analyses were carried out with a column flow rate of 0.6 mL min−1, a column pressure of 6.0 MPa, a temperature of 39 °C for 30 min, and an injection volume of 20 µL.
Before the analysis, the samples were processed and conserved in 20% metaphosphoric acid. Then, they were kept at −20 °C until further analysis. Although all the acids were evaluated, the propionic and butyric acid concentrations were below the measurable levels in all silage samples. Thus, the results of these acids could not be stated in the results table.
2.6. Microbiological Analyses of Silage
The microbial populations were quantified after opening of the silos, with the aid of selective culture media for each microbial group evaluated. Thus, the counts of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) were assessed using MRS agar (Man, Rogosa, and Sharpe; KASVI® São José dos Pinhais, Paraná State, Brazil) with the addition of 0.1% acetic acid. Molds and yeasts were quantified using potato dextrose agar (PDA, KASVI® São José dos Pinhais, Paraná, Brazil) acidified with 1% tartaric acid (weight/volume) following the methodology described by González and Rodríguez [27].
The microbial populations were quantified from 10 g of a sample of each silo, which was homogenized in 90 mL of sterile distilled water for 1 min, considered as dilution of 1/10. Afterward, successive dilutions were performed (10−1 to 10−6) for each group and placed in sterile disposable Petri dishes. Then, the selective culture medium was included in each plate, which was incubated in B.O.D (Biochemical Oxygen Demand) (lactic acid bacteria—LAB: 37 °C for 48 h; mold and yeasts: 37 °C for 72 h).
After the incubation period in B.O.D. at the above-mentioned times, the colonies were counted. The morphological characteristics of the colonies helped differentiate molds and yeasts.
Dishes with values between 30 and 300 colony-forming units (CFU) were considered countable and used to evaluate the microbial populations for each group. After the counting, all values were converted to a logarithmic scale (base log10). The number of mold and yeast colonies was lower than the values that should be considered, and these data are not included in the results section.
2.7. Assessment of Aerobic Stability
After 120 days of ensiling, the aerobic stability (expressed in hours) was assessed by evaluating the surface and internal temperatures of the spineless cactus silages submitted to air exposure.
Aerobic stability was evaluated by returning 1.0 kg of the silage samples to their respective experimental silos, without compaction and lids, and maintained in a closed environment with controlled temperature (25 °C).
The temperatures (internal of the silages and the environment) were evaluated every 2 h. The internal temperatures were recorded using a skewer thermometer (KASVI® São José dos Pinhais, Paraná, Brazil), which was placed in the geometric center of the silage mass. In contrast, the ambient temperature was measured with a digital laser thermometer. The maximum and minimum temperatures (°C), thermal amplitude, and forage losses (% FM) were evaluated during the aerobic stability evaluation. In addition, the beginning of deterioration was considered when the internal temperature of the silages reached 2 °C above the ambient temperature [28].
2.8. Statistical Analysis
The experiment was conducted in a completely randomized design with 5 treatments and 5 replications, totaling 25 experimental units. The following statistical model was used:
where: Ŷij = observed value of the dependent variable; μ = overall average; Ti = fixed effect of gliricidia hay inclusion; and Ɛij = experimental random error associated with each assumption observation NID~(0, σ2).
Ŷij = μ + Ti + Ɛij,
The data were submitted for analysis of variance using the Bartlett test and regression. The degrees of freedom were decomposed by orthogonal contrasts in linear and quadratic effects, according to the inclusion levels of gliricidia hay in the spineless cactus silage. The significance of the regressions was determined at the 5% probability level for type-I error, using the PROC MIXED of the SAS 9.4 statistical package program.
3. Results
3.1. Chemical Composition
The dry matter contents were not influenced (p > 0.05) by the gliricidia hay inclusion in the spineless cactus silages. In contrast, the ash (p < 0.001), NDF (p < 0.001), ADF (p < 0.001), and hemicellulose (p < 0.001) contents increased linearly. The NFC (p < 0.001) and TC (p < 0.001) contents decreased with the gliricidia hay inclusion in the spineless cactus silage. In addition, crude protein (p = 0.004) and ether extract (p < 0.001) contents showed negative and positive quadratic effects with the inclusion of gliricidia hay in the spineless cactus silages (Table 3).
3.2. Fermentation Profile and Lactic Acid Bacteria Counts
The pH values and acetic acid concentrations increased linearly (p < 0.001 and p < 0.001, respectively) as gliricidia hay was included in the spineless cactus silages (Table 4). Thus, for each 1% inclusion of gliricidia hay, there was an increase of 0.025 points for pH values and 0.024 mg mL−1 DM in the acetic acid concentration. In contrast, the lactic acid concentration decreased linearly (p = 0.025) as gliricidia hay was included in the spineless cactus silages. Thus, for each 1% of inclusion of gliricidia hay, the acetic acid concentration decreased by 0.032 mg mL−1 DM. In addition, ammoniacal concentration was influenced quadratically (p = 0.026), adjusting positively within the model. Despite this, the inclusion levels of gliricidia hay in the spineless cactus silages did not influence lactic acid bacteria counts (p > 0.05).
3.3. Aerobic Stability
There were decreasing linear effects on the maximum (p = 0.007), minimum (p < 0.001), and thermal amplitude (p = 0.026) temperatures as gliricidia hay was included in the spineless cactus silage (Table 4). Thus, it was estimated that for each 1% inclusion of gliricidia hay, reductions of 0.07 °C, 0.03 °C, and 0.03 °C in the maximum, minimum, and thermal amplitude temperatures, respectively. In addition, there was a quadratic effect (p = 0.008) of the inclusion of gliricidia hay on forage losses in spineless cactus silages (Table 4). Thus, a minimum forage loss of 7.33% was estimated when 15.06% of gliricidia hay was included in the silage.
3.4. Fermentation Losses
There was a decreasing linear effect on effluent losses as gliricidia hay was included in spineless cactus silages (p = 0.019) (Table 5). Thus, it was estimated that for each 1% inclusion of gliricidia hay, there was a reduction of 1.1 kg/ton of fresh matter in effluent losses. Furthermore, a quadratic effect was observed on dry matter recovery with the gliricidia hay inclusion in the spineless cactus silages (p < 0.001). A maximum dry matter recovery of 93.06% was estimated when 8.05% of gliricidia hay was included in the spineless cactus silage. Despite this, there was no effect of the inclusion of gliricidia hay in spineless cactus silage on gas and total losses (p > 0.05) (Table 6).
4. Discussion
4.1. Chemical Composition
The nutritional potential of gliricidia is enhanced when the conservation and presentation of this forage are considered in the form of hay, which serves as both a moisture-retaining and protein-rich source. This hay is particularly suitable for the production of high-quality silages [11], especially when forage palm is the primary ingredient. When gliricidia hay was incorporated into the concentrate, replacing ground corn and cottonseed cake, it accounted for 20% of the total silage and contained similar levels of dry matter.
However, the addition of 14.97% gliricidia hay to total mixed ration silages based on spineless cactus resulted in a quadratic increase in crude protein content. This increase can be attributed to the higher crude protein levels found in gliricidia hay (18.25%) compared to ground corn (8.61%) and cottonseed cake (26.30%). The inclusion of gliricidia hay replaces ground corn, which has lower crude protein content, thus increasing the crude protein content of the silage. Nevertheless, when gliricidia hay is included at levels exceeding 15%, the crude protein from cottonseed cake is gradually replaced by the lower crude protein content of the hay, leading to a reduction in the overall crude protein content of the silage. Another explanation for the decrease in crude protein after reaching the plateau could be greater protein degradation, as supported by the observed changes in ammonia nitrogen concentration in the silage. During the fermentation process of silage, when ammonia nitrogen levels exceed 10%, it indicates excessive protein degradation, which may lead to a reduction in the overall quality of the silage [29].
As observed by Brito et al. [30], the inclusion of 25% gliricidia hay in cactus forage silage (Opuntia ssp) promoted an increase in crude protein content of 47%. Sá et al. [31] state that increased crude protein in the ensiled mass is the main advantage of total mixed rations silages production. According to the NRC [18], the crude protein content in the feed fed to small ruminants of less than 7% can reduce fiber intake and digestion due to the slow passage of the feed through the rumen.
In the current study, the cottonseed cake had an ether extract concentration of 9.75% DM, while the gliricidia hay had 3.14% DM. On the other hand, as gliricidia hay was included in the pre-ensiled material, the amount of cottonseed cake decreased. Thus, including gliricidia hay explains the decrease in ether extract concentration in the silage.
The same behavior was observed for the other nutrients, influenced by the inclusion of gliricidia hay and the decrease in cottonseed cake and ground corn in the total mixed ration silage. Therefore, the increasing linear effects for ash, NDF, ADF, and hemicellulose and linear decreasing effects for NFC and TC can be explained. It is important to note that, despite the increases in NDF and ADF, their values at all levels of gliricidia hay inclusion were below 60% and 40%, respectively, as recommended by Van Soest [32].
4.2. Fermentation Profile
Organic acids are the byproducts of nutrient fermentation by bacteria present in silage. The main organic acids produced during fermentation include acetic acid (pKa of 4.75), propionic acid (pKa of 4.87), butyric acid, and lactic acid (pKa of 3.86). These acids are responsible for the decrease in pH of the silage due to their ability to acidify the medium [29].
Lactic acid is the most abundant organic acid in silage, with concentrations generally ranging from 2% to 4% DM. This acid typically results in a final pH variation of 3.7 to 4.0 for grasses and 4.3 to 5.0 for legumes [29]. The linear decrease in lactic acid concentration observed in the present study can be attributed not to the inclusion of gliricidia hay in the total mixed ration silage but to the conversion of lactic acid to acetic acid [33]. This conversion is supported by the increase in acetic acid concentration observed in the current experiment. It is also important to note that there was no significant difference in the amount of lactic acid bacteria present in the silages with the inclusion of gliricidia hay. This suggests that the increase in pH did not affect the growth of lactic acid bacteria, but rather influenced their metabolism, as evidenced by the decrease in lactic acid concentration.
Regarding the inclusion levels of gliricidia hay in spineless cactus silage as a total mixed ration, the results indicate a linear increase in acetic acid levels, with the highest concentration observed at the 20% gliricidia hay inclusion level. Acetic acid is the second most prevalent organic acid in silage, after lactic acid. Its concentrations typically range from 1% to 3% DM. Acetic acid plays a crucial role in inhibiting the growth of fungi and promoting greater aerobic stability, thereby reducing silage deterioration. A pronounced effect is typically observed when acetic acid levels reach approximately 3% to 4% DM [29,33]. In the present experiment, the highest concentration of acetic acid was 0.94% DM, which occurred at the 20% gliricidia hay inclusion level in the total mixed rations. The concentration of acetic acid is directly influenced by the moisture content of the substrate [29], which explains the relatively low concentration (<1% DM) of this organic acid in the current study.
Propionic acid is found in concentrations lower than 0.1%, while butyric acid is not detected in silages that have shown optimal fermentation [29]. The concentrations of these organic acids in the present experiment are within the parameters considered ideal for ideal fermentation silages. It is important to emphasize that if the concentrations of these organic acids are higher than the parameters considered ideal, the development of clostridial bacteria may have occurred [29].
The concentration of ammonia nitrogen decreased with the inclusion of gliricidia hay up to the inclusion level of 11.8% of FM, from which it increased. This result is due to the concentration of lactic acid in the medium, which promoted the decrease in pH and thus prevented the proliferation of proteolytic bacteria. However, the pH from the 11.8% inclusion of gliricidia hay in the FM was insufficient to inhibit the growth of proteolytic bacteria, resulting in increased ammonia nitrogen in the silage. De Sá et al. [34] state that these results are desirable because they are below 10%, indicating no excessive breakdown of proteins in ammonia, characterizing an adequate silage fermentation.
The results in the evaluation of the aerobic stability of the total mixed rations based on spineless cactus silage with the inclusion of gliricidia hay, replacing ground corn and cottonseed cake, did not show a break in stability, remaining stable during the evaluation time. Aerobic stability is demonstrated because the temperature did not exceed 2 °C above ambient temperature during 120 h of exposure. The results presented for the minimum temperature demonstrate a linear decrease in temperature to 22.5 °C. When a silo is opened, exposure to oxygen leads to an increase in temperature due to exothermic reactions, such as respiration and the multiplication of microorganisms, which contribute to the degradation of the silage [20].
All inclusion levels of gliricidia hay in the spineless cactus silage studied exhibited desirable fermentation patterns with acceptable aerobic stability. Consequently, the decrease in temperature can be attributed to the high-quality fermentation facilitated by the inclusion of gliricidia hay. Brito et al. [30] also observed desirable fermentation patterns in silage made from gliricidia and forage cactus (Opuntia spp.), further supporting the use of gliricidia hay as an alternative for improving silage fermentation quality.
Regarding forage losses, a decrease was observed as the inclusion of gliricidia hay in the silage increased, with the lowest losses occurring at the 15.06% inclusion level of gliricidia hay.
4.3. Fermentation Losses
The results of the analysis of fermentation losses in silage, prepared as a total mixed ration with spineless cactus and increasing inclusion levels of gliricidia hay, showed a linear decrease in effluent losses. However, dry matter recovery decreased after the inclusion of 8.1% gliricidia hay.
De Sá et al. [34], based on studies involving the inclusion of gliricidia hay in cactus forage silage (Opuntia ficus indica), found that incorporating gliricidia hay reduced effluent losses. This suggests that gliricidia hay enhances the fermentation process, thereby reducing effluent losses. Similarly, Brito et al. [30] observed a reduction in fermentation losses and greater dry matter recovery with the inclusion of varying levels of gliricidia in cactus forage silages (Opuntia spp.).
The decrease in dry matter recovery can be attributed to the absorptive capacity of gliricidia hay for the effluents. As a result, when the ensiled material was dried, it lost more moisture, leading to a reduction in dry matter and, consequently, a lower dry matter recovery rate.
5. Conclusions
The inclusion of up to 15.1% gliricidia hay in the production of total mixed ration silages based on spineless cactus (Nopalea cochenillifera Salm Dyck) preserves adequate standards of chemical composition (15.6% crude protein) and fermentation profile, while decreasing forage losses (7.3% FM) without compromising dry matter recovery and aerobic stability.
Author Contributions
Conceptualization, G.G.P.d.C., D.d.S.P. and C.S.R.; Methodology, G.G.P.d.C., D.d.S.P. and C.S.R.; Validation, G.G.P.d.C., D.d.S.P. and C.S.R.; Formal Analysis, G.G.P.d.C., D.d.S.P. and H.D.R.A.; Investigation, D.A.G.J., G.A.R.L., A.T.C., T.V.B.S.S., R.B.S., R.B.M. and K.R.R.; Resources, G.G.P.d.C. and C.S.R.; Data Curation, G.G.P.d.C. and D.d.S.P.; Writing—Original Draft Preparation, D.A.G.J., G.A.R.L., A.T.C., T.V.B.S.S., R.B.S., R.B.M. and K.R.R.; Writing—Review and Editing, G.G.P.d.C., D.d.S.P., C.S.R., H.D.R.A. and M.L.G.M.L.d.A.; Visualization, G.G.P.d.C., D.d.S.P., C.S.R., H.D.R.A. and M.L.G.M.L.d.A.; Supervision, G.G.P.d.C., D.d.S.P., C.S.R., H.D.R.A. and M.L.G.M.L.d.A.; Project Administration, G.G.P.d.C. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding
This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement
Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement
No new data were created.
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful to the National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq), the Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel (CAPES), and the Bahia State Research Support Foundation (FAPESB) for their scholarships and fellowships.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Abbreviations
The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:
| FM | Fresh matter |
| DM | Dry matter |
| NDF | Neutral detergent fiber |
| ADF | Acid detergent fiber |
| NFC | Non-fibrous carbohydrates |
| TC | Total carbohydrates |
| CP | Crude protein |
| EE | Ether extract |
| PVC | Polyvinyl chloride |
| TNT | Non-woven fabric |
| NH3-N | Ammoniacal nitrogen |
| HPLC | High-performance liquid chromatography |
| GL | Gas losses |
| EL | Effluent losses |
| TL | Total losses |
| SWC | Total silo weight at closure |
| SWO | Total silo weight at opening |
| FMC | Forage mass at closure |
| DMCC | Forage dry matter at closure |
| ESWO | Empty silo weight plus sand weight at opening |
| SW | Empty silo weight |
| ESWC | Empty silo weight + sand weight at closure |
| FMC | Forage mass at closure |
| TL | Total loss of dry matter |
| DMi | Initial dry matter |
| DMf | Final dry matter |
| DMR | Dry matter recovery rate |
| FMO | Forage mass at opening |
| DMO | Dry matter at the opening |
| DMC | Dry matter at closure |
| LAB | Lactic acid bacteria |
| CFU | Colony-forming units |
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Table 1.
Chemical composition of the ingredients used in the production of total mixed ration silages based on spineless cactus.
Table 1.
Chemical composition of the ingredients used in the production of total mixed ration silages based on spineless cactus.
| Item, % DM | Ingredients | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Spineless Cactus | Gliricidia Hay | Cottonseed Cake | Ground Corn | |
| Dry matter, % FM | 7.69 | 84.03 | 88.79 | 87.77 |
| Ash | 15.34 | 9.52 | 5.35 | 2.22 |
| Crude protein | 3.76 | 18.25 | 26.30 | 8.61 |
| Ether extract | 2.25 | 3.14 | 9.75 | 4.15 |
| Neutral detergent fiber | 40.09 | 42.50 | 17.19 | 21.13 |
| Acid detergent fiber | 26.10 | 22.61 | 9.18 | 12.11 |
| Non-fibrous carbohydrates | 38.56 | 2.58 | 41.41 | 63.89 |
| Total carbohydrates | 78.65 | 69.08 | 58.60 | 85.02 |
Table 2.
Proportions of ingredients used in the production of total mixed ration silages based on spineless cactus.
Table 2.
Proportions of ingredients used in the production of total mixed ration silages based on spineless cactus.
| Ingredient, % FM | Inclusion Level of Gliricidia Hay, % FM | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 0 | 5 | 10 | 15 | 20 | |
| Spineless cactus silage | 80 | 80 | 80 | 80 | 80 |
| Ground corn | 13 | 10 | 6.5 | 3.5 | 0 |
| Cottonseed cake | 7 | 5 | 3.5 | 1.5 | 0 |
| Gliricidia hay | 0 | 5 | 10 | 15 | 20 |
| Total | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 |
Table 3.
Effect of gliricidia hay inclusion on the chemical composition of total mixed ration silages based on spineless cactus.
Table 3.
Effect of gliricidia hay inclusion on the chemical composition of total mixed ration silages based on spineless cactus.
| Nutrient, %DM | Inclusion Level of Gliricidia Hay, % FM | SEM 1 | p-Value | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 0 | 5 | 10 | 15 | 20 | Linear | Quadratic | ||
| Dry matter, % FM 2 | 23.1 | 23.9 | 23.4 | 23.7 | 24.1 | 0.59 | 0.246 | 0.983 |
| Organic matter 3 | 6.69 | 8.02 | 9.45 | 11.1 | 12.4 | 0.96 | <0.001 | 0.673 |
| Crude protein 4 | 12.6 | 14.4 | 15.3 | 15.5 | 15.3 | 0.67 | <0.001 | 0.004 |
| Ether extract 5 | 6.87 | 5.41 | 4.50 | 3.13 | 3.13 | 0.66 | <0.001 | <0.001 |
| Neutral detergent fiber 6 | 16.8 | 20.8 | 27.6 | 35.6 | 40.9 | 4.40 | <0.001 | 0.130 |
| Acid detergent fiber 7 | 7.59 | 12.0 | 17.6 | 22.1 | 27.6 | 3.09 | <0.001 | 0.714 |
| Hemicellullose 8 | 7.60 | 8.78 | 11.5 | 13.5 | 13.4 | 1.53 | <0.001 | 0.161 |
| Non-fibrous carbohydrates 9 | 58.2 | 51.4 | 43.5 | 34.7 | 28.2 | 5.19 | <0.001 | 0.941 |
| Total carbohydrates 10 | 73.9 | 72.2 | 70.7 | 70.3 | 69.1 | 1.03 | <0.001 | 0.246 |
1 Standard error of the mean; 2 % of fresh matter; regression equations: 3 Ŷ = 6.6238 + 0.2912x (R2 = 0.99); 4 Ŷ = 12.626 + 0.4013x − 0.0134x2 (R2 = 0.99); 5 Ŷ = 6.9109 − 0.3358 + 0.007x2 (R2 = 0.98); 6 Ŷ = 15.747 + 1.2601x (R2 = 0.98); 7 Ŷ = 7.3671 + 1.002x (R2 = 0.99); 8 Ŷ = 7.6951 + 0.3241x (R2 = 0.92); 9 Ŷ = 58.584 − 1.5384x (R2 = 0.99); 10 Ŷ = 73.52 − 0.229x (R2 = 0.96).
Table 4.
Effect of gliricidia hay inclusion on the fermentative profile and microbiology counts of total mixed ration silages based on spineless cactus.
Table 4.
Effect of gliricidia hay inclusion on the fermentative profile and microbiology counts of total mixed ration silages based on spineless cactus.
| Ingredients | Inclusion Level of Gliricidia Hay, % FM | SEM 1 | p-Value | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 0 | 5 | 10 | 15 | 20 | Linear | Quadratic | ||
| pH 2 | 4.15 | 4.25 | 4.22 | 4.49 | 4.64 | 0.11 | <0.001 | 0.094 |
| Ammoniacal nitrogen, % TN 3 | 2.30 | 1.73 | 1.74 | 1.50 | 1.94 | 0.22 | 0.148 | 0.026 |
| Organic acids, mg mL−1 DM | ||||||||
| Acetic 4 | 0.55 | 0.61 | 0.69 | 0.87 | 1.02 | 0.09 | <0.001 | 0.122 |
| Propionic | 0.08 | 0.01 | 0.01 | <0.01 | <0.01 | 0.02 | 0.210 | 0.419 |
| Lactic 5 | 2.44 | 2.00 | 1.87 | 1.87 | 1.70 | 0.24 | 0.025 | 0.403 |
| LAB, log 10 CFU g−1 FM | 3.74 | 3.73 | 3.70 | 3.68 | 3.75 | 0.03 | 0.950 | 0.701 |
1 Standard error of the mean; regression equations: 2 Ŷ = 4.1006 + 0.0246x (R2 = 0.88); 3 Ŷ = 2.2857 − 0.1201x + 0.0051x2 (R2 = 0.87); 4 Ŷ = 0.5078 + 0.0239x (R2 = 0.95); 5 Ŷ = 2.294 − 0.032x (R2 = 0.81).
Table 5.
Effect of gliricidia hay inclusion on the aerobic stability of total mixed ration silages based on spineless cactus.
Table 5.
Effect of gliricidia hay inclusion on the aerobic stability of total mixed ration silages based on spineless cactus.
| Ingredients | Inclusion Level of Gliricidia Hay, % FM | SEM 1 | p-Value | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 0 | 5 | 10 | 15 | 20 | Linear | Quadratic | ||
| Temperature, °C | ||||||||
| Maximum 2 | 25.6 | 26.5 | 25.9 | 24.6 | 24.7 | 0.58 | 0.007 | 0.159 |
| Minimum 3 | 23.1 | 23.1 | 23.0 | 22.7 | 22.5 | 0.13 | <0.001 | 0.196 |
| Thermal amplitude 4 | 2.50 | 2.68 | 2.90 | 1.86 | 2.20 | 0.54 | 0.026 | 0.528 |
| Forage losses, % FM 5 | 11.6 | 8.30 | 8.11 | 7.64 | 7.52 | 1.20 | <0.001 | 0.008 |
| Aerobic stability, hour | 120.0 | 120.0 | 120.0 | 120.0 | 120.0 | - | - | - |
1 Standard error of the mean; regression equations: 2 Ŷ = 26.224 − 0.074x (R2 = 0.53); 3 Ŷ = 23.24 − 0.032x (R2 = 0.89); 4 Ŷ = 2.712 − 0.028x (R2 = 0.31); 5 Ŷ = 11.232 − 0.5182x + 0.0172x2 (R2 = 0.91).
Table 6.
Effect of gliricidia hay inclusion on the fermentative losses of total mixed ration silages based on spineless cactus.
Table 6.
Effect of gliricidia hay inclusion on the fermentative losses of total mixed ration silages based on spineless cactus.
| Ingredients | Gliricidia Hay Inclusion Level, % FM | SEM 1 | p-Value | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 0 | 5 | 10 | 15 | 20 | Linear | Quadratic | ||
| Losses | ||||||||
| Effluents, kg/ton FM 2 | 46.3 | 15.2 | 47.8 | 11.9 | 20.4 | 12.58 | 0.019 | 0.707 |
| Gases, % | 1.20 | 1.34 | 1.29 | 1.24 | 1.34 | 0.27 | 0.841 | 0.933 |
| Total, % | 5.83 | 2.85 | 6.82 | 2.44 | 3.11 | 1.33 | 0.169 | 0.830 |
| Dry matter recovery, % 3 | 86.6 | 92.1 | 95.2 | 85.3 | 80.9 | 3.15 | 0.023 | <0.001 |
1 Standard error of the mean; regression equations: 2 Ŷ = 39.317 − 1.1x (R2 = 0.25); 3 Ŷ = 86.964 + 1.5029x − 0.0933x2 (R2 = 0.86).
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Gonçalves Junior, D.A.; Lima, G.A.R.; Chirinda, A.T.; Silva, T.V.B.S.; Saldanha, R.B.; Mendes, R.B.; Ribeiro, K.R.; Alba, H.D.R.; Araújo, M.L.G.M.L.d.; Pina, D.d.S.; et al. Gliricidia Hay Replacing Ground Corn and Cottonseed Cake in Total Mixed Rations Silages Based on Spineless Cactus. Agriculture 2025, 15, 873. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15080873
AMA Style
Gonçalves Junior DA, Lima GAR, Chirinda AT, Silva TVBS, Saldanha RB, Mendes RB, Ribeiro KR, Alba HDR, Araújo MLGMLd, Pina DdS, et al. Gliricidia Hay Replacing Ground Corn and Cottonseed Cake in Total Mixed Rations Silages Based on Spineless Cactus. Agriculture. 2025; 15(8):873. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15080873
Chicago/Turabian StyleGonçalves Junior, Domingos Alves, Gilvan Anésio Ribeiro Lima, Alberto Tomo Chirinda, Tarcizio Vilas Boas Santos Silva, Rodrigo Brito Saldanha, Raiane Barbosa Mendes, Keyla Rocha Ribeiro, Henry Daniel Ruiz Alba, Maria Leonor Garcia Melo Lopes de Araújo, Douglas dos Santos Pina, and et al. 2025. "Gliricidia Hay Replacing Ground Corn and Cottonseed Cake in Total Mixed Rations Silages Based on Spineless Cactus" Agriculture 15, no. 8: 873. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15080873
APA StyleGonçalves Junior, D. A., Lima, G. A. R., Chirinda, A. T., Silva, T. V. B. S., Saldanha, R. B., Mendes, R. B., Ribeiro, K. R., Alba, H. D. R., Araújo, M. L. G. M. L. d., Pina, D. d. S., Rodrigues, C. S., & Carvalho, G. G. P. d. (2025). Gliricidia Hay Replacing Ground Corn and Cottonseed Cake in Total Mixed Rations Silages Based on Spineless Cactus. Agriculture, 15(8), 873. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15080873
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