Toward Smart and Sustainable Port Operations: A Blue Ocean Strategy Approach for the Spanish Port System

Abstract

The digital transformation of the maritime sector, driven by Industry 4.0, is reshaping port operations toward smarter and more sustainable models. This paper analyzed the implementation of Port 4.0 technologies in the Spanish port system through the lens of the Blue Ocean Strategy. By redefining competitive boundaries and applying tools such as the Four Actions Framework and value innovation curves, the study proposes a new strategic vision where ports collaborate rather than compete. Key enabling technologies (such as Big Data, IoT, AI, and Blockchain) were assessed for their capacity to optimize energy use, reduce emissions, and enhance operational efficiency. The findings highlight the potential for a unified, data-driven port ecosystem that creates a new uncontested market space for Spanish ports while promoting environmental and economic sustainability.

1. Introduction

The maritime and port sector stands as one of the fundamental pillars of the global economy, enabling the circulation of goods, raw materials, and energy on a planetary scale. However, while port infrastructure has historically served as a backbone for industrial expansion, its strategic positioning has become increasingly challenged by the confluence of complex dynamics [1]. These include rising environmental pressures, technological disruption, increasing urban–port tensions, and a growing demand for multimodal, sustainable, and intelligent logistics chains.

In Europe, and particularly in Spain, port systems operate in a delicate balance between public mandate and competitive market logic as well as between innovation initiatives and institutional inertia [2]. In this context, achieving systemic transformation requires more than the addition of digital tools or energy projects; it demands a redefinition of value, governance, and purpose. While initiatives such as the European Green Deal and national Port 4.0 frameworks offer a normative reference, the strategic orientation of port authorities often remains reactive and fragmented.

This paper addresses the need for a cohesive, anticipatory model capable of overcoming these constraints by leveraging the port system not as a collection of isolated infrastructures, but as a coordinated, strategic ecosystem.

The Spanish port system is composed of 28 autonomous port authorities, each with distinct investment policies, digital strategies, and degrees of technological maturity. This atomization generates significant challenges in terms of redundancy, operational inefficiencies, and institutional misalignment [3]. While some ports (such as Barcelona, Valencia, or Algeciras) have developed advanced digital platforms and sustainability programs, others remain dependent on outdated administrative systems and lack interoperability [2].

More critically, competition between ports under the same national umbrella has led to suboptimal infrastructure allocation and missed opportunities for synergies [4]. The existing regulatory framework allows each port authority a high level of independence, but in doing so, it also restricts the capacity to act collectively in response to national or European imperatives.

Moreover, digitalization efforts have often been undertaken in parallel rather than collaboratively, exacerbating fragmentation. This structural dispersion has a direct impact on the capacity of the system to attract non-traditional actors, innovate across sectors, or lead sustainable urban–port integration. It also weakens the ability of ports to function as coordinated nodes in a global smart logistics network [5]. Thus, while each port may pursue its own strategy, the absence of a shared strategic architecture significantly undermines the performance and transformative potential of the system as a whole.

In response to these structural challenges, this paper proposes the adoption of a Blue Ocean Strategy (BOS) approach as a means to reconfigure the Spanish port system from within [6]. Rather than engaging in incremental improvements or isolated modernization projects, the BOS invites a strategic shift from competing within existing boundaries to creating new value spaces [7].

Applied to ports, this means breaking away from traditional rivalry and instead constructing an ecosystem based on collaboration, digital interoperability, and shared innovation [8]. The BOS framework offers specific tools for this transformation including the Value Curve, ERRC Matrix, PEC Map, and Non-Customer Analysis [9].

These tools help redefine not only the services that ports offer, but also the actors they engage with and the outcomes they prioritize. Through this approach, ports are no longer seen as logistical endpoints, but as platform orchestrators capable of catalyzing green, digital, and territorial innovation [10]. Such a reframing is crucial not only for boosting competitiveness, but also for ensuring an alignment with the global sustainability goals and national strategic agendas. By focusing on systemic redesign rather than isolated performance indicators, the BOS approach provides a roadmap for reconciling efficiency, innovation, and resilience in the maritime and port domain [11].

Despite the relevance of the port sector to national economies and global trade, the strategic transformation of port systems has received limited attention in both the academic literature and institutional reform [12]. Most studies have tended to focus on individual ports, benchmarking digital maturity or measuring environmental performance in isolation [13]. While valuable, these approaches often miss the systemic dimension of port governance, particularly in contexts where multiple authorities operate under a shared institutional umbrella [14].

There has been a notable lack of strategic design methods applied to the port system as a whole. The Blue Ocean Strategy has been widely adopted in private-sector innovation but is rarely applied to public infrastructure systems or national-scale networks [15]. This paper addresses that gap by adapting BOS tools to a port ecosystem with public ownership, regulated competition, and strong ties to urban and environmental dynamics.

It also contributes to the policy discussion by offering a structured pathway for aligning innovation, investment, and governance in line with the Spanish Port 4.0 initiative and the European Union’s digital and climate agendas [3]. As such, the paper situates itself at the intersection of strategic design, public-sector transformation, and sustainable logistics innovation [2].

The objective of this paper was to design and propose a strategic transformation model for the Spanish port system, based on the principles and tools of the Blue Ocean Strategy. The approach aims to shift the system away from fragmented competition and toward a collaborative, interoperable, and sustainability-driven ecosystem.

In order to achieve this, the paper follows a four-phase methodological structure. First, it conducts a diagnosis of the current “red ocean” conditions characterizing the Spanish port sector. Second, it applies core BOS tools to identify the value gaps, latent opportunities, and innovation leverage points. Third, it formulates a strategic vision based on BOS principles, ensuring alignment with user needs, technological feasibility, and stakeholder adoption. Finally, it consolidates these elements into a coherent model of the Blue Ocean Strategy formulation for the port system. Each section of the paper builds sequentially on the previous one, combining conceptual frameworks with practical diagnostics and strategic design outputs. The conclusions reflect on the implications of this model for policy, port governance, and future research, positioning this work as a foundational reference for port innovation strategies in complex institutional contexts.

2. Literature Review

2.1. Strategic Approaches in Port Governance

Port governance has evolved significantly in recent decades, with increasing attention paid to models that balance efficiency, public interest, and global competitiveness. Traditionally, the literature has distinguished between landlord, tool, and service port models, with the landlord model prevailing across Europe including Spain [16]. However, beyond this typology, scholars have highlighted the importance of governance as a dynamic, strategic function, and not merely as an administrative control [17]. In this view, ports are no longer neutral facilitators of trade, but strategic actors embedded in complex territorial, logistic, and digital ecosystems [18].

Recent contributions have expanded this debate by emphasizing multilevel governance, particularly in the context of port–city integration and the emergence of metropolitan logistics platforms [19]. Studies have shown that governance fragmentation among port authorities can hinder long-term investment planning, policy coherence, and the development of shared digital infrastructures [20]. Nonetheless, most academic analyses remain descriptive or diagnostic, offering limited prescriptive frameworks to reconfigure governance logics or strategic alignments across port networks [21].

In [22], the authors discussed governance mechanisms and cross-border digital investment risks in emerging port ecosystems, highlighting the importance of coordinated management structures—an approach that resonates with our own proposal for integrated governance within the Spanish port system.

2.2. Digitalization and Smart Port Strategies

Digital transformation is reshaping the maritime and port sector, enabling the redesign of operational, logistical, and institutional processes [3]. The “Smart Port” paradigm has emerged as a response to increasing demands for efficiency, traceability, and sustainability, supported by the deployment of enabling technologies such as the Internet of Things (IoT), artificial intelligence (AI), blockchain, big data analytics, and 5G connectivity [23]. These technologies are not merely additive tools, but drivers of new organizational capabilities, decision-making logics, and service models. In this context, the digitalization of port operations is no longer optional; it is becoming a prerequisite for competitiveness in a global logistics environment increasingly governed by automation, data-driven optimization, and real-time responsiveness [24].

Numerous European ports have initiated digitalization projects aligned with this trend. In Spain, ports such as Valencia, Barcelona, and Bilbao have deployed initiatives ranging from smart access control systems and cargo tracking platforms to AI-based predictive maintenance and port community systems (PCSs) [2]. National programs such as the Port 4.0 Fund (launched by Puertos del Estado) have played a key role in supporting technological innovation, financing over 150 pilot projects across the port-logistics chain. At the European level, initiatives like the Digital Transport and Logistics Forum (DTLF) and the European Maritime Single Window environment (EMSWe) have further pushed for harmonization, interoperability, and the standardization of digital services across borders [3].

However, despite this momentum, the digitalization of Spanish ports remains fragmented. Each port authority tends to develop its own digital tools, procurement models, and technological priorities, often without alignment or interoperability with the rest of the system [25]. The academic literature has shown that this institutional dispersion results in duplicated efforts, uneven innovation capacities, and inefficiencies in data sharing. Moreover, while many studies have focused on the technical dimensions of smart ports (sensor networks, terminal automation, or cybersecurity protocols), fewer works have examined the strategic, organizational, or governance implications of digital transformation (Figure 1). Without systemic alignment, smart port projects may remain isolated upgrades, falling short of catalyzing ecosystem-wide transformation [26].

Visual representation shows the progressive transition from manual, fragmented port operations to a fully integrated and interoperable digital ecosystem. Each stage reflects a qualitative leap in both technological deployment and strategic alignment.

To fully realize the potential of digitalization, ports must transition from isolated smart initiatives to a coordinated digital ecosystem [27]. This requires the development of shared standards, federated digital infrastructures, and integrated innovation policies at the national level. The concept of a smart port should therefore be reframed from a purely technical or operational perspective to one that incorporates institutional collaboration, cross-sectoral integration, and long-term strategic planning [28]. Such a shift would not only enhance efficiency, but also enable ports to serve as innovation platforms for urban mobility, energy transition, and smart logistics, aligning with broader public policy goals and creating a foundation for collective intelligence and resilience across the maritime-port system.

The conceptual model in Figure 2 shows a federated digital infrastructure linking autonomous port authorities through a shared interoperability layer. This layer enables coordinated interaction with urban systems, logistics platforms, public institutions, and academic stakeholders [10].

2.3. Port Competition, Cooperation, and Territorial Impact

Ports operate within a framework of economic rivalry, often competing for traffic, investment, and strategic positioning. In Spain, this competition has been formalized through financial autonomy and performance-based evaluation criteria [25]. However, the literature increasingly questions the long-term sustainability of this model, especially when it fosters a duplication of services, underutilized infrastructures, and fragmented innovation. Many authors have argued for a shift from inter-port competition to “coopetition”, where ports cooperate within regional or national systems to generate mutual gains [14].

Ports are also increasingly analyzed in relation to their territorial and urban contexts. The evolution of port–city relations, including land use conflicts, environmental externalities, and the role of ports in metropolitan mobility, has become a critical area of study [29]. This body of work supports the idea that ports should be repositioned not merely as transport hubs, but as integrative nodes in regional innovation systems and sustainable development agendas [30]. However, while the territorial implications have been well-documented, fewer studies have explored how these factors can be operationalized in a strategic framework that aligns governance, innovation, and urban policy [31].

The dynamics of competition and cooperation among ports have long been discussed in the academic literature [15,32,33]. While competition is often seen as a driver of efficiency and innovation, excessive rivalry (especially within national systems) can lead to redundant infrastructure, disjointed investments, and diminished collective impact. The financial and managerial autonomy granted to each port authority often leads to internal competition, which undermines system-wide coordination [25]. This model, while aligned with neoliberal governance trends, has generated structural inefficiencies, particularly in the duplication of services and the absence of coordinated long-term planning. Scholars such as [4] have called for a shift toward “coopetition”, wherein ports compete externally while collaborating internally through shared platforms, policy alignment, and harmonized investment strategies [34].

Simultaneously, ports are no longer understood solely as logistical infrastructures, but as actors embedded within complex territorial systems. Port–city relations, environmental conflicts, and intermodal connectivity have become central themes in port governance. The expansion of port hinterlands and the integration of ports into urban mobility and logistics networks require a reconceptualization of the port as a multiscalar, multifunctional node [35]. While several studies have addressed the challenges of port–city coexistence, few have offered strategic frameworks that operationalize this complexity into actionable models. The present paper contributes to this gap by linking governance reform and strategic innovation to the broader objective of integrating ports into sustainable territorial development processes [36].

2.4. Research Gap: Systemic Strategic Transformation of Port Ecosystems

Despite the growing body of literature on digitalization, governance, and port–city integration, there remains a significant gap regarding the systemic strategic transformation of entire port ecosystems, particularly at a national level. Most research has focused on individual ports or clusters, rarely addressing the design of coordinated strategies that span multiple autonomous authorities [37]. Moreover, while the Blue Ocean Strategy has been widely applied in business innovation, its adaptation to public infrastructure systems, especially ports, remains underexplored [38].

There is also limited academic guidance on how to reconstruct market boundaries, reach non-customers, or structure innovation portfolios within the port sector. Concepts such as value curves, ERRC matrices, or PEC maps are virtually absent from the port literature, despite their relevance for addressing fragmentation and unlocking new value propositions [39]. As a result, port systems continue to pursue incremental modernization without fully harnessing strategic design as a transformation tool [40].

This paper addresses this gap by applying the full BOS methodology to the Spanish port system. It offers not only a theoretical adaptation of strategic innovation tools to a public-sector setting, but also a prescriptive model grounded in diagnostic analysis, methodological rigor, and alignment with real-world policy frameworks (e.g., Port 4.0, EU Green Deal). In doing so, it contributes to reimagining the role of ports in national innovation strategies and territorial development.

3. Methodology

This study adopted a conceptual and strategic methodology based on the framework of the Blue Ocean Strategy (BOS), developed by Kim and Mauborgne [41], as a structured approach to redefining the Spanish port system under the principles of Port 4.0. The method was applied sequentially in four distinct stages: diagnosis, application of BOS tools, strategic formulation, and the construction of a new operational model (Figure 3).

3.1. Diagnosis of the Red Ocean

The first stage consists of a critical analysis of the current Spanish port landscape, conceptualized as a “red ocean”, which is characterized by intense internal competition, fragmented governance, limited technological integration, and uneven operational performance across port authorities. This diagnostic phase aims to identify inefficiencies, overlaps, and systemic limitations that hinder the sector’s ability to transition toward sustainability and digital transformation.

3.2. Application of Strategic BOS Tools

The second stage focuses on the practical deployment of analytical tools derived from the BOS framework to structure the current competitive environment and support the formulation of a differentiated value proposition.

• The Value Curve was used to map the key variables on which the Spanish port system currently competes, providing a visual summary of service features and investment intensity across authorities.
• The Four Actions Framework (Eliminate–Reduce–Raise–Create) guides strategic thinking around which elements of the current system should be restructured to break away from the existing competition.
• The ERRC Matrix, derived from the previous framework, summarizes the proposed changes by categorizing them into those that should be removed, scaled down, enhanced, or newly introduced.
• Non-Customer Analysis identifies users and stakeholders not currently engaged by the port ecosystem—such as urban actors, smart mobility services, or digital platform providers—and explores how they can be incorporated into the new value proposition.
• The Pioneer–Migrator–Settler (PEC) Map classifies innovation opportunities according to their disruptive potential and market maturity, supporting the prioritization of strategic actions based on impact and feasibility.

These tools are not used in isolation but as a coherent system to extract actionable insights and define the foundations of a new, innovation-driven strategic scenario.

3.3. Application of the BOS Formulation Principles

Building upon the structured outputs from the previous stage, the methodology continues with the application of the four BOS formulation principles. These principles provide a logical and sequential pathway for transitioning from conceptual design to a coherent strategic blueprint.

• Reconstruct market boundaries: The port sector is redefined as a cooperative and interoperable digital ecosystem rather than a collection of competing infrastructures. Market boundaries are expanded to include integrated logistics chains and data-sharing environments.
• Focus on the big picture, not the numbers: The analysis shifts from isolated operational metrics to a system-wide perspective that considers long-term value creation, interoperability, and environmental impact.
• Reach beyond existing demand: Strategic attention is directed toward actors and needs not currently addressed including digital service providers, intermodal urban mobility agents, and non-traditional port users.
• Get the strategic sequence right: The proposed model is validated following a logical progression—ensuring utility for stakeholders, designing an accessible price strategy, optimizing cost structures, and addressing barriers to adoption such as technological resistance or regulatory inertia.

3.4. Formulation of the Blue Ocean Strategy

The final stage consists of synthesizing the information, insights, and strategic elements developed in the previous phases to formulate an integrated Blue Ocean Strategy tailored to the Spanish port system. This involves:

• Consolidating the results of the BOS tools: The value curve, ERRC matrix, non-customer analysis, and PEC map are combined to generate a clear and actionable set of priorities for transformation.
• Designing the strategic scenario: A conceptual model is articulated that emphasizes collaboration between port authorities, a shared digital platform for real-time operations and data exchange, and the implementation of sustainable technologies.
• Defining transformative actions: Specific strategic initiatives are outlined such as unified governance frameworks, standardization of digital systems, investment in smart energy solutions, and the development of port–city synergies.

This methodology enables the construction of an uncontested market space aligned with the principles of Port 4.0 and sustainability while also proposing an operational transformation applicable to other port ecosystems facing similar challenges.

4. Results and Discussion

The methodological framework outlined in the previous section was applied to systematically analyze the current Spanish port system and explore a strategic alternative based on the Blue Ocean Strategy. This section presents the results obtained in each of the four methodological stages, discussing their implications in terms of operational transformation, strategic positioning, and the creation of a new value-driven, sustainable port ecosystem. The findings demonstrate how this approach enables the sector to move beyond competition and toward collaborative innovation.

4.1. Diagnosis of the Red Ocean

The initial assessment of the Spanish port system confirmed a number of structural and operational inefficiencies that justify the need for a strategic transformation. Among the key findings were the following:

• High internal competition among the port authorities, leading to inefficiencies in service delivery and price-based rivalry;
• Digital fragmentation, with unequal technological maturity levels across ports and no national interoperability;
• Lack of a unified vision, resulting in redundant investments and duplicated infrastructure;
• Environmental lag, as many ports still rely heavily on fossil fuels, lacking energy-efficient alternatives.

These conditions are typical of a “red ocean”, where ports operate under conventional assumptions, compete for limited demand, and fail to create new market spaces.

4.2. Application of BOS Tools

To move beyond these limitations, several core tools of the Blue Ocean Strategy were applied. These tools allow for a structured diagnosis of the value dynamics in the current system and support the formulation of a differentiated strategic vision.

4.2.1. Value Curve

The Value Curve is one of the central tools in the Blue Ocean Strategy methodology. It enables a visual representation of the current competitive profile of an industry and serves as a basis for identifying how to differentiate strategically.

This study constructed a value curve to compare the traditional Spanish port model (Red Ocean) with the proposed strategy aligned with the principles of Port 4.0 and sustainable innovation (Blue Ocean). Seven key strategic variables were identified based on the literature, policy documents, and the analysis conducted in the diagnostic phase (

Table 1. Strategic variables: Evaluation criteria.

Strategic Variable	Justification	Evaluation Criteria
Operational efficiency	Reflects the capacity of ports to manage flows efficiently, reduce turnaround times, and optimize internal processes.	Scored from 1 (fragmented, manual, or inefficient) to 5 (fully optimized, automated, and integrated).
Inter-port collaboration	Assesses the degree of coordination and cooperation among Spanish ports to avoid duplicated services and enable synergies.	Scored from 1 (isolated and competitive) to 5 (highly coordinated and collaborative).
Digitalization	Captures the extent to which ports have adopted digital systems for logistics, administration, and decision-making.	Scored from 1 (analog/manual operations) to 5 (full implementation of Port 4.0 technologies).
Energy sustainability	Measures the commitment to green practices, electrification of infrastructure, and reduction in carbon emissions.	Scored from 1 (heavy fossil fuel dependence) to 5 (clean energy adoption and electrification).
Data interoperability	Evaluates the availability and quality of data exchange across systems, platforms, and port stakeholders.	Scored from 1 (no interoperability or real-time data flow) to 5 (standardized, open digital infrastructure).
Attraction of non-customers	Indicates the effort to integrate new users and services (e.g., urban mobility actors, tech providers) into the port ecosystem.	Scored from 1 (ports serving only traditional clients) to 5 (integration of new actors and services).
Shared governance	Assesses whether port governance is unified and strategically aligned at the national level rather than fragmented per authority.	Scored from 1 (autonomous port-level governance) to 5 (shared national strategy and management alignment).

):

• Operational efficiency;
• Inter-port collaboration;
• Digitalization;
• Energy sustainability;
• Data interoperability;
• Attraction of non-customers;
• Shared governance.

Each variable was assessed on a 1–5 scale, with 1 indicating low or fragmented implementation and 5 representing a high and consistent level of value delivery across the system.

The traditional model was positioned with modest performance in efficiency, collaboration, and governance, and very low levels in areas such as digitalization and sustainability. In contrast, the proposed Blue Ocean model reflected high value creation across all dimensions, especially those related to innovation, interoperability, and environmental impact.

Table 1 presents the strategic variables considered in the value curve including their definitions and evaluation criteria. The ERRC Matrix, discussed in Section 4.2.2, summarizes the strategic actions derived from these variables.

Figure 4 shows the resulting value curve. The Red Ocean strategy revealed a system heavily focused on competition, cost fragmentation, and limited collaboration. In contrast, the Blue Ocean strategy shifted the focus toward energy efficiency, transparency, synergies, data flow, and a unified logistics chain, suggesting a reconfiguration of the sector’s value architecture.

Figure 4 illustrates the Value Curve, comparing the current competitive profile of Spanish ports with the proposed strategic repositioning, highlighting the shift from fragmented operations to integrated value creation.

The values assigned to each strategic variable in the curve were estimated on a 1–5 scale based on expert judgment, the analysis of institutional documents, and a comparative evaluation of the port authority strategies and capacities.

The values assigned to each strategic variable in the value curve were determined using a qualitative scale from 1 (low strategic value) to 5 (high strategic value). These estimations were based on the comparative analysis of port authority practices, institutional reports, and expert judgment. The Red Ocean line reflects the prevailing conditions in the Spanish port system, while the Blue Ocean line represents the expected value delivery under the proposed strategic transformation.

This reorientation implies:

• A reduction in redundant infrastructures and competitive behavior;
• The creation of new value through digital platforms and shared governance;
• The amplification of collective efficiency by aligning objectives across ports.

This curve laid the foundation for the subsequent application of the Four Actions Framework and the broader strategic transformation proposed.

4.2.2. Four Actions Framework (ERRC)

The Four Actions Framework (ERRC—Eliminate, Reduce, Raise, Create) provides a structured tool to analyze how the current value proposition of the Spanish port system can be reconfigured.

Following the construction of the value curve, the next step in the application of the Blue Ocean Strategy methodology was to implement the Four Actions Framework, also known as the ERRC grid. This tool enables a strategic rethinking of the industry by pushing organizations to systematically eliminate, reduce, raise, and create elements in their current value proposition. It is designed to break away from incremental innovation and instead foster bold, value-driven transformation.

In the context of the Spanish port system, the ERRC framework was used to derive actionable insights based on the limitations and opportunities identified in the diagnostic phase and the value curve analysis. The results were summarized in the ERRC Matrix (see Table 1), which proposed the following strategic directions:

Eliminate:

• The analysis highlighted the need to eliminate two core aspects of the current system that no longer deliver strategic value:

• Price-based competition among port authorities, which leads to inefficiencies and a race to the bottom in service provision;
• Redundant port services and infrastructures, especially in areas where duplication adds operational cost but not value to users.

Reduce:

• Several practices, while not entirely obsolete, were identified as misaligned with the long-term goals of sustainability and integration:

• Isolated infrastructure investments carried out independently by each port, without national coordination or shared priorities;
• Manual administrative procedures that persist in documentation, customs, and operational workflows, thus increasing the delays and error rates.

Raise:

• To modernize the port system and enhance its strategic positioning, the following elements should be strengthened:

• Digital maturity standards across all port authorities, ensuring a minimum level of interoperability and integration;
• Adoption of green energy sources such as on-shore power supply (OPS) and the electrification of port operations;
• Deployment of IoT and sensor technologies to enhance monitoring, maintenance, and real-time decision-making.

Create:

• The transformation proposed by the Blue Ocean approach also requires the creation of new capabilities and infrastructures:

• A national data-sharing platform that enables seamless interoperability between ports, logistics operators, and urban mobility systems;
• A shared governance framework, ensuring strategic alignment and coordinated action across the entire Spanish port system.

The ERRC Matrix (Table 1) synthesizes these strategic directions and serves as a bridge between diagnostic tools and the subsequent formulation of the Blue Ocean Strategy.

4.2.3. Non-Customer Analysis

A key principle of the Blue Ocean Strategy is the ability to expand market reach by engaging not only existing customers, but also with those who are currently outside the conventional demand spectrum—so-called non-customers. In the context of the Spanish port system, this strategic lens is essential to unlock latent value, foster cross-sector innovation, and enhance the port–city relationship.

The non-customer analysis in this study followed the classic BOS structure of three tiers of non-customers:

First Tier: “Soon-to-be” Non-Customers

These are stakeholders who interact occasionally or marginally with the port system but do not perceive it as a strategic ally or platform for development. In the Spanish case, this includes:

• Urban mobility providers (e.g., municipal transport agencies, shared mobility platforms);
• Local governments and metropolitan planning bodies, which typically operate independently from port decision-making.

These actors could become allies through joint planning, shared digital infrastructures, and logistics–mobility integration strategies.

Second Tier: “Refusing” Non-Customers

These stakeholders have consciously chosen not to engage with ports due to a lack of incentives, accessibility, or technological compatibility. Examples include:

• Digital solution providers (e.g., startups and SMEs in IoT, AI, Blockchain) excluded from port procurement due to rigid, traditional contracting models;
• Energy tech companies not integrated into port electrification strategies.

By adapting procurement models and aligning with innovation priorities, ports can attract these actors and enrich their digital and sustainability ecosystems.

Third Tier: “Unexplored” Non-Customers

These actors have never been considered potential users or partners of the port system. In this study, this group included:

• Inland logistics hubs and intermodal platforms, which currently operate in silos;
• Academic and research institutions specializing in AI, robotics, energy systems, or governance, rarely engaged beyond consulting.

By embracing these groups, ports can open up new pathways for R&D collaboration, training, and knowledge-driven governance.

Figure 5 could illustrate these three tiers in concentric circles or a stepped funnel, making it easier for readers to visualize the expansion of strategic scope.

The incorporation of non-customers into the port strategy directly contributes to:

• The creation of new services and demand spaces;
• Increased innovation density around port infrastructure;
• Stronger ties between ports and their urban, social, and digital environments.

This analysis reinforces the idea that ports must transition from infrastructure managers to platform orchestrators in an increasingly interconnected and intelligent ecosystem.

4.2.4. PEC Map (Pioneers, Migrators, Settlers)

The Pioneer–Migrator–Settler (PEC) Map is a strategic tool within the Blue Ocean Strategy framework used to evaluate the innovation profile of an organization or sector. It classifies initiatives or capabilities based on their degree of originality, value creation potential, and market maturity, offering a portfolio view of current and future strategic assets.

In the context of the Spanish port system, the PEC Map was applied to classify the various initiatives and technologies identified throughout this study. The classification helps to prioritize investments, sequence transformation efforts, and balance risk and return in the implementation of a national Blue Ocean Strategy.

Pioneers

These are initiatives that represent true value innovation and open up new market space. They are forward-looking, high-impact, and mostly unexplored in the current port landscape. In this case:

• Interoperable digital infrastructure across all port authorities;
• Real-time data-sharing platforms connecting ports, logistics, and cities;
• Port-wide electrification strategies integrated with national energy transition plans;
• Collaborative governance frameworks that replace competition with alignment.

Pioneers should be prioritized for immediate strategic development as they anchor the creation of the Blue Ocean.

Migrators

These are initiatives that offer moderate innovation and currently exist in some ports but lack full deployment or integration across the system. Examples include:

• Smart port platforms developed in individual ports (e.g., Barcelona, Valencia);
• 5G experimentation projects, AI for port operations, and digital twins;
• Energy pilot projects such as shore power for docked vessels.

Migrators can be scaled and harmonized to support systemic transformation.

Settlers

Settlers are legacy systems and practices that, while still functioning, do not offer differentiation or strategic value in the current context. These include:

• Isolated administrative systems used by individual port authorities;
• Manual or paper-based customs and clearance procedures;
• Redundant investments in non-shared infrastructures.

Settlers should be restructured, integrated into broader systems, or gradually phased out.

A PEC Map diagram (Figure 6) visually plotted these three categories as a portfolio bubble chart, helping the readers see the distribution of innovation maturity across the port ecosystem.

The application of the PEC Map in this study ensured that the proposed Blue Ocean Strategy was not only visionary, but was also sequenced and grounded in realistic implementation pathways aligned with technological readiness and organizational capacity.

The PEC Map (Pioneers–Migrators–Settlers) offers a strategic portfolio view that classified the components of the Spanish port system according to their degree of innovation and future potential. By organizing these elements across two dimensions—level of innovation and time horizon (Today vs. Tomorrow)—the map provides insight into the balance between legacy systems, current development trajectories, and disruptive opportunities.

The Pioneers, clustered predominantly in the upper-right quadrant of the map, represent high-impact innovations with long-term potential. These include the information cluster, the proposed governance model, and digitalization initiatives envisioned as system-wide and fully interoperable. Their position in the “Tomorrow” column reflects that, although these strategies are being formulated or piloted, they have not yet been fully implemented. Nevertheless, they hold the greatest transformative capacity. For example, the governance model is intended to address institutional fragmentation and support shared strategic planning, while the information cluster would enable real-time interoperability across port systems, logistics providers, and urban mobility networks. These initiatives are pivotal to unlocking the full value of Port 4.0 and aligning with the European data and climate directives.

The Migrators occupy a transitional space and include digitalization and logistics chain improvements that are already in motion in some port authorities—particularly those with stronger innovation agendas—but have not yet reached the national scale or cross-system integration. Their classification reflects both their moderate originality and partial diffusion. These initiatives can serve as foundational steps that, if scaled properly, may evolve into Pioneers. However, if not harmonized or supported by national coordination, they risk stagnating as isolated best practices.

Finally, the Settlers—such as traditional investment practices, fragmented competitiveness, and the compensation fund—reflect legacy mechanisms that, although still functional, no longer offer strategic differentiation. They absorb resources and institutional attention but do not contribute meaningfully to the system’s repositioning. Their placement in the “Today” column indicates that they continue to shape operational decisions but must be re-evaluated or restructured in light of the proposed Blue Ocean Strategy. Importantly, these elements are not necessarily obsolete, but their strategic value is low in a context that demands alignment, transparency, and innovation.

The visual distribution of initiatives in the PEC Map underscores a critical message: the Spanish port system is at a crossroads. While it maintains operational tools and governance logic rooted in the past, it simultaneously harbors a set of forward-looking, high-potential innovations that could redefine its role in the national economy. Moving toward the Blue Ocean requires deliberate investment in the Pioneer zone, strategic migration of scalable practices, and the gradual phasing out or transformation of legacy systems. This transition must be supported by coordinated governance, aligned incentives, and a clear roadmap linking short-term operational reforms with long-term structural transformation.

4.3. Application of BOS Formulation Principles

The formulation principles of the Blue Ocean Strategy provide a structured and sequential pathway for turning diagnostic insights into a coherent and future-ready strategic model. Based on the results from the diagnostic and tool-based phases, these principles were applied to guide the design of a Blue Ocean Strategy for the Spanish port system. Each principle contributes to redefining the logic of competition and unlocking new value creation spaces.

4.3.1. Reconstruct Market Boundaries

One of the foundational principles of the Blue Ocean Strategy is the need to redefine the boundaries of the market in which the organization operates. Rather than competing within the established limits and traditional segmentation, this principle encourages actors to look across sectoral, functional, and customer boundaries to discover new value spaces.

In the context of the Spanish port system, this principle is particularly relevant due to the rigid structure defined by the 28 independent port authorities, which have historically functioned under a logic of territorial fragmentation and institutional silos. The diagnostic phase revealed how this structure fosters internal competition, redundancies in infrastructure and services, and an underutilization of strategic synergies.

To reconstruct the market boundaries (Figure 7), the proposed Blue Ocean Strategy suggests a fundamental shift from a port-centric competitive model to a networked, interoperable port ecosystem, built on collaboration and digital integration. This reframing affects several layers:

• From territorial isolation to functional integration: The strategy proposes treating the port system as a national logistics and innovation platform rather than as a sum of disconnected local nodes.
• From sectoral specialization to cross-sectoral innovation: Ports are repositioned as connectors of maritime, urban, digital, and energy systems, enabling interactions with actors that were previously considered outside the port’s operational scope.
• From infrastructure providers to platform orchestrators: Port authorities are encouraged to adopt a new role that goes beyond infrastructure management and embraces data coordination, intermodal integration, and ecosystem leadership.

This redefinition allows the port system to access new sources of demand, generate joint value with other sectors (e.g., smart cities, green energy, digital services), and eliminate internal inefficiencies. It also forms the strategic base for the principles that follow, all aimed at aligning the port ecosystem with the logic of the Blue Ocean.

4.3.2. Focus on the Big Picture, Not the Numbers

The second principle of Blue Ocean Strategy formulation urges strategists to move beyond fragmented metrics and conventional benchmarking and instead adopt a holistic, system-level vision. In traditional planning processes, excessive focus on isolated performance indicators—such as cargo throughput, cost per ton, or port turnaround times—tends to reinforce incremental thinking and sustain existing competitive structures.

In the Spanish port context, this pattern is evident: each port authority operates with its own KPI framework, investment priorities, and technological roadmap, often with limited alignment to national or collective objectives. This localism leads to a proliferation of uncoordinated digital projects, redundant infrastructure, and fragmented user experiences across the system.

The Blue Ocean approach recommends refocusing the strategic lens on the broader ecosystem, emphasizing structural transformation over short-term performance improvements. Concretely, this principle was applied in the following ways:

• System-level mapping: Instead of analyzing ports individually, the strategy evaluated the port system as a single digital and operational entity, considering the flows, synergies, redundancies, and collective externalities.
• Value-oriented logic: Strategic choices were guided not by isolated efficiency gains but by their contribution to collective value creation such as enhanced interoperability, shared data governance, and sustainable mobility integration.
• Visual tools to drive dialogue: Instruments such as the Value Curve, ERRC Matrix, and PEC Map not only serve analytical purposes, but also facilitate communication among decision-makers, shifting discussions from defensive benchmarking to strategic design.

The approach in Figure 8 enables the port system to move away from zero-sum logic and toward shared strategic horizons. It provides the foundation for joint innovation, efficient resource allocation, and the alignment of port transformation with broader national and European sustainability and digitalization goals.

4.3.3. Reach Beyond Existing Demand

A key principle of the Blue Ocean Strategy is to move beyond the existing demand base and explore how to create value for non-customers—actors who, for various reasons, are not currently engaged with the port system but represent an untapped opportunity. Instead of segmenting and competing for the same users served by every port, this principle invites us to rethink who the system is truly for, and how its value proposition can be expanded.

In the Spanish port context, this principle is particularly relevant due to the historical focus on traditional maritime users (shipping lines, freight forwarders, and exporters/importers), while urban, technological, and mobility stakeholders have remained largely outside the strategic scope.

This study applied this principle through the structured three-tier non-customer analysis (as previously discussed in Section 4.2.3), identifying key expansion zones:

Tier 1—Soon-to-be non-customers:

These include actors such as local governments, urban mobility platforms, and metropolitan planning agencies who interact marginally with port operations but could benefit from joint digital and logistical solutions.

Tier 2—Refusing non-customers:

These are technology providers—especially in AI, IoT, blockchain, and green energy—that currently see the port system as too rigid, closed, or unattractive to collaborate with.

Tier 3—Unexplored non-customers:

This tier includes inland logistics hubs, academic institutions, and data-oriented research centers, which are not traditionally seen as clients or partners of port authorities, but could become key players in a data-driven, intelligent logistics ecosystem.

By targeting these three tiers (Figure 9), the proposed Blue Ocean Strategy enables the Spanish port system to:

• Open new service lines and partnerships beyond traditional maritime logistics;
• Increase the density and diversity of its innovation network;
• Reinforce its connection with urban and territorial development strategies;
• Become a platform for mobility-as-a-service, digital experimentation, and circular economy initiatives.

This expansion of demand not only increases the system’s long-term value creation capacity, but also strengthens its legitimacy and resilience in a rapidly evolving economic and regulatory environment.

4.3.4. Get the Strategic Sequence Right

The final formulation principle of the Blue Ocean Strategy emphasizes the importance of following a logical and coherent sequence when moving from idea to implementation. Rather than designing a strategy based solely on feasibility or intuition, this principle recommends validating proposals through a four-step sequence:

• Buyer utility;
• Price;
• Cost;
• Adoption.

This sequence ensures that the strategy not only creates value, but does so in a way that is accessible, economically viable, and socially implementable.

1.

Buyer Utility

The strategy must deliver clear, compelling utility to the intended users. In the case of the Spanish port system, the proposed Blue Ocean Strategy addresses unmet needs from both traditional users (e.g., shipping lines, logistics operators) and new actors (e.g., tech companies, local governments). Utility is delivered through:

• Reduced operational complexity;
• Easier access to real-time data;
• Streamlined logistics and mobility coordination;
• Shared services that lower entry barriers for non-traditional users.

2.

Price

The value must be offered at a price point that is acceptable to users and aligned with the public character of port operations. This implies:

• Promoting open-access digital infrastructure;
• Ensuring that participation in shared platforms is affordable and transparent;
• Avoiding hidden costs or proprietary lock-ins that discourage adoption.

3.

Cost

Once the utility and pricing have been confirmed, the next step is to validate the cost-efficiency. The proposed strategy relies on:

• Reuse and standardization of digital tools across authorities;
• Phased implementation to reduce capex intensity;
• Elimination of redundant infrastructure and duplicated IT projects.

This cost rationalization strengthens the long-term sustainability of the strategic shift.

4.

Adoption

The final test is whether the ecosystem can and will adopt the new strategy. In this case, key enablers for adoption include:

• Institutional alignment through governance frameworks;
• EU and national digitalization and decarbonization agendas;
• Demonstration pilots (e.g., Port 4.0 initiatives) that reduce the risk perception;
• Engagement of public and private stakeholders through co-design.

Applying this sequence ensures that the proposed transformation is not only ambitious, but also grounded and executable. It avoids the common pitfalls of tech-first or policy-first strategies by integrating user needs, pricing logic, operational feasibility, and stakeholder dynamics into a single roadmap.

4.4. Strategic Formulation of the Blue Ocean

The culmination of the Blue Ocean Strategy application lies in the formulation of a new strategic model for the Spanish port system—one that moves beyond fragmentation, competition, and reactive policy, and toward collaboration, interoperability, and shared innovation.

This final phase integrates the outcomes from previous analyses (Value Curve, ERRC Matrix, Non-Customer Mapping, PEC Classification, and strategic principles) into a coherent, future-oriented vision. The proposed Blue Ocean model is articulated around four fundamental strategic pillars.

4.4.1. A Unified Digital Infrastructure

The model proposes the deployment of a shared, interoperable digital platform across all 28 Spanish port authorities. This infrastructure allows for:

• Real-time coordination of port operations;
• Standardized data exchange between ports, logistics operators, and urban mobility systems;
• Reduction in duplicated technological efforts and enhanced system transparency.

This platform is not conceived as a top–down imposition, but rather as a federated architecture, allowing for modular implementation and localized adaptation.

4.4.2. Collaborative Governance

Instead of inter-port rivalry, the strategy encourages the adoption of a shared governance framework aligned with the national and EU strategic priorities. This includes:

• Harmonized investment planning;
• Joint digital and green transition strategies;
• Establishment of common standards for innovation and sustainability.

By aligning incentives and objectives, ports can operate as nodes of a coordinated network rather than competitors in a zero-sum game.

4.4.3. Expansion of the Value Network

The Blue Ocean model reframes the port from a static infrastructure to a dynamic innovation platform that engages new actors across sectors. This includes:

• Urban mobility providers;
• Tech and energy startups;
• Academic and research institutions;
• City governments and local communities.

The integration of these actors opens new demand spaces, supports circular economy models, and positions ports as active drivers of territorial innovation.

4.4.4. Commitment to Energy Transition

The strategy embeds energy efficiency and climate action as core elements of value creation. This involves:

• Electrification of port operations and shore power supply (OPS);
• Integration of renewable energy sources and green hydrogen pilots;
• Data-driven energy optimization strategies across logistics flows.

Environmental performance becomes a competitive and collaborative advantage, aligning the port system with the broader European Green Deal and global decarbonization efforts.

The proposed Blue Ocean Strategy for the Spanish port system does not simply suggest a set of innovations, it proposes a structural transformation from fragmented actors to an integrated ecosystem, from reactive investments to proactive value design, and from isolated performance to collective impact. The model is scalable, transferable, and designed to serve as a reference for other national port systems undergoing similar pressures.

In a future implementation scenario, the proposed strategy could enhance operational efficiency by reducing duplicated systems, standardizing data protocols, and improving coordination between ports. Although this study is conceptual, future empirical validation may involve performance indicators such as vessel turnaround time, inter-port cargo flows, energy consumption per operation, and stakeholder engagement in digital governance platforms.

The proposed model integrates specific green energy solutions such as shore power systems (OPSs), the electrification of cargo handling equipment, and the incorporation of renewable energy sources including solar and wind. These measures are aligned with national objectives under Spain’s Integrated National Energy and Climate Plan (PNIEC) as well as European initiatives such as the Green Deal, Fit for 55, and the FuelEU Maritime package.

5. Conclusions

This paper applied the Blue Ocean Strategy (BOS) framework to the Spanish port system as a method for redefining its strategic trajectory in the context of Port 4.0. Through a structured four-phase methodology—diagnosis of the current competitive environment, application of BOS analytical tools, deployment of the formulation principles, and development of a new strategic model—this study proposed an alternative to the entrenched logic of inter-port competition, infrastructural duplication, and fragmented innovation.

The resulting strategy articulates a vision of the port system as a collaborative, interoperable, and innovation-oriented ecosystem. The Value Curve, ERRC Matrix, PEC Map, and Non-Customer Analysis collectively revealed a latent opportunity: to shift from siloed management toward shared governance, transition from isolated IT investments to a unified digital infrastructure, and expand the system’s relevance by engaging actors beyond traditional maritime logistics.

Among the key contributions of this research is the formulation of a Blue Ocean Strategy tailored to a national port system—something that has been rarely explored in the existing literature, which has tended to focus on individual port case studies. Moreover, this proposal places digital and green transition at the core of value creation, aligning port reform with broader European Union strategies and climate commitments.

For the Spanish port system, the implications are significant. By adopting a Blue Ocean approach, port authorities could reduce inefficiencies, attract new partnerships, and reinforce their role as facilitators of sustainable, smart, and resilient logistics chains. The proposed model promotes cooperation over competition and positions ports as active agents in urban innovation and territorial development.

Naturally, this study had limitations. It was based on strategic and conceptual tools, supported by public documentation and the existing academic literature. Although consistent with recent institutional trends, the model has not yet been empirically validated through pilot implementation or stakeholder feedback mechanisms. The impact of such a transformation, in terms of cost savings, emissions reduction, or service performance, remains to be quantified.

Future research should focus on operationalizing the strategic pillars outlined here. This includes designing governance prototypes, testing data-sharing platforms in real environments, and developing energy transition indicators specific to port ecosystems. Additionally, comparative studies across European port systems could enhance the transferability of this framework and contribute to the construction of a broader Blue Ocean logic for maritime innovation.

In conclusion, the Blue Ocean Strategy offers not only a methodology, but a mindset—one capable of unlocking new value spaces in complex, mature sectors. Applied to the Spanish port system, it becomes a tool for structural transformation, guiding the sector toward a horizon of sustainable growth, digital interoperability, and long-term competitiveness.