“Ye Shall Know Them by Their Fruits”: Prosperity and Institutional Religion in Europe and the Americas †
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Research Model
3. Outcome: Prosperity and the Global Competitiveness Index (GCI)
4. Diagnosis: Prosperity in Europe and the Americas
4.1. Competitiveness (GCI) in Europe and the Americas
4.2. Social Progress in Europe and the Americas
5. Prosperity and Religion
Institutional Influence of Religion on Prosperity
6. Institutions as Triggers of Prosperity
- Scant agreement exists on how to empirically measure formal or informal institutions. Different studies measuring institutions with varied methods measure different things. Sometimes, even gauging the outcome in isolation from other factors is challenging (Woodruff 2006).
- Endogeneity issues plague the causal approaches of institutions to prosperity, although, to a lesser extent, the effect of political institutions on transparency. However, previous treatments of endogeneity have not been convincing (Persson and Tabellini 2003; Woodruff 2006; Kunicová 2006).
- It is not entirely clear which institutions are fundamental to prosperity-transparency processes (Woodruff 2006, p. 106).
- Formal institutions have little effect on broad prosperity outcomes. However, informal institutions matter and they have a more significant effect (Glaeser et al. 2004; Woodruff 2006; Treisman 2000).
- Although quite strong associations often exist, the causal arrow may point in both directions (from prosperity/transparency to institutional choice and from institutions to prosperity/transparency) (Rose-Ackerman 2006, p. xxv).
- Informal institutions are the most difficult to measure (and change), since they are largely determined by history (Woodruff 2006, p. 121).
7. Legal Traditions and Prosperity in Europe and the Americas
7.1. Legal Traditions and Current Institutional Performance
7.2. The Roman Civil Law Tradition
[…] originates in Roman law, uses statutes and comprehensive codes as a primary means of ordering legal material […]. Dispute resolution tends to be inquisitorial rather than adversarial. Roman law was rediscovered in the Middle Ages in Italy, adopted by the Catholic Church for its purposes, and from there formed the basis of secular laws in many European countries.
7.2.1. Roman Civil Law
the greatest contribution that Rome has made to the Western civilization, and Roman ways of thinking have certainly percolated into every Western legal system. In this sense, all Western lawyers are Roman lawyers. In civil law nations, however, the influence of Roman civil law is much more pervasive, direct, and concrete than it is in the common law world.
7.2.2. Roman Catholic Jurisprudence (Canon Law)
7.3. Protestantism, Revolutions, and Law
7.3.1. The Sixteenth-Century German-European Revolution
In the entire canon law of the pope there are not even two lines which could instruct a devout Christian, (…) it would be a good thing if canon law were completely blotted out, from the first letter to the last, especially the [papal] decretals. More than enough is written in the Bible about how we should behave in all circumstances. […] Unless they abolish their laws and ordinances and restore to Christ’s churches their liberty and have it taught among them, they are to blame for all the souls that perish under this miserable captivity, and the papacy is truly the kingdom of Babylon and of the very Antichrist.(LW 44:179, 202–3, as cited in Witte 2002, p. 55)
“Jurists are bad Christians” (WA TR 3, No. 2809b); “Every jurist is an enemy of Christ” (WA TR 3, Nos. 2837, 3027); and “I shit on the law of the pope and of the emperor, and on the law of the jurists as well”.(WA 49:302 as cited in Witte 2002, p. 2)
The heart is deceitful above all things, and desperately wicked: Who can know it?(Jeremiah 17:9).
Why should ye be stricken any more? ye will revolt more and more: the whole head is sick, and the whole heart faint.(Isaiah 1:5)
For I know that in me (that is, in my flesh,) dwelleth no good thing: for to will is present with me; but how to perform that which is good I find not. For the good that I would, I do not: but the evil which I would not, that I do.(Romans 7:18–19)
the idea of the Pope and Emperor as parallel and universal powers disappears, and the independent jurisdictions of the sacerdotium are handed over to the secular authorities.
7.3.2. The Seventeenth-Century English-European Revolution
7.3.3. The Eighteenth-Century United States Revolution
7.3.4. The Influence of Protestant Revolutions on Secularism
7.3.5. The Eighteenth and Nineteenth-Century French-European Revolution.
7.3.6. Maintaining the Roman Catholic Medieval Status Quo in Latin American Countries Post-Independence
it may be expressed in the form and content of law; in the structures of education; in the nature of approved sanctions and mechanisms for resolving social conflict; and, of course, in the accepted processes for legitimating authority. All these manifestations and others are expressions of a belief that the values which orient individuals and inform the structure of institutions cannot be separated from those which relate individuals to the transcendental or divine.
The Adoption of French Civil Law in Post-Independent Latin American Countries
Concordats with the Roman Catholic Church–State
Education in universities, public and private schools and further educational establishments should be under the doctrine of the Catholic Religion. […] the bishops and other local ordinaries would have the free direction of the theology chairs, of canon law, [and] of all the branches of ecclesiastical teaching. […] in addition to the influence they will exert through the strength of their ministry over the religious education of youth, they will ensure that in the teaching of any other branch there is nothing contrary to [the Roman Catholic] religion and morality (article 2). Besides, the bishops retain their right of censure over all books and writings related to dogma and discipline of the Church and public morals.(model of the Bolivian concordat, cited in Salinas Araneda 2013, p. 217; my translation of the original Spanish document)
7.3.7. The Twentieth-Century Russian Revolution
7.4. Religion, Law, and State Models in Europe and the Americas
7.5. A Synthesis of the Institutional Role of Religion in Law, State, and Prosperity
8. Materials and Methods
8.1. Data, Population, and Empirical Strategy
8.2. Modelling Competitiveness (GCI) (Phases 1 and 2)
Protocol
9. Empirical Results (Correlational Analysis)
9.1. Phase 1: Competitiveness in the World
9.1.1. Model 1
Positive Correlations
Negative Correlations
9.1.2. Model 2 (Population Percentages)
9.1.3. Model 3 (including State Religion)
9.2. Phase 2: Modelling Competitiveness (Europe and the Americas)
9.2.1. Model 4: Results of Cross-Validation
9.2.2. Model 5: Results with Step
9.3. Conclusions for the Correlational Analysis on Competitiveness
9.3.1. Conclusions for Competitiveness in the World (All Models)
9.3.2. Conclusions for Competitiveness in Europe and the Americas
10. General Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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1 | The GCI displays a similar trend to the SPI. GCI is empirically modelled, as this index is comprehensive and does not directly include “environmental performance” (EPI). The SPI is not empirically modelled, as it contains information about environmental performance that would induce endogeneity in the models when including the EPI. |
2 | D. Martin Luthers Werke: Kritische Gesamtausgabe, 78 vols. (Weimar, 1883–1987). |
3 | Please refer to the Supplementary Materials for a detailed description of the variables and their interactions in the general research model. Also included in the Supplementary Materials is a summary of the theories, indicators, and sources utilised in the models. |
4 | In the following sections, italics are used to identify variables or parameters. |
5 | Due to data availability issues, some countries were excluded (e.g., most of the small island states in the Caribbean). However, most countries in Europe and the Americas provide rich data. See Supplementary Materials for detailed information on countries, sources, and main variables. |
6 | Exceptionally, while variables, like “Agnostic” and “Independent” indicating religion distribution in a population, positively affected GCI, they were not significant enough to be included in the model. |
State/Church legal scheme | Roman Empire (Roman law) | Papal Church Monarchy; “Holy” Roman Empire; Middle Ages (Canon law) | Modern democracies. Overthrow or weaken monarchies and feudal powers | ||||||
Early Christian Free Church (“sect”) | Separation of Church and State; adoption of civil laws in several countries. | ||||||||
Year | BC | 1 AD | 300 | 600 | 900 | 1200 | 1500 | 1800 | Present-Future |
Some key events | Jesus Christ born | 312 Constantine converts to Christianity | 476 Fall of the Western Roman Empire | 1054 Schism between East and West | Supremacy of the popery over other monarchies | 1517 The Reformation. Martin Luther and other reformers | 1787 United States Constitution | ||
391 Theodosius makes Christianity the official religion of the Roman Empire | 590 Papal supremacy (Gregory the Great) | ca. 1000 Conversion of Europe complete | Crusades | (1545–1563) Counter-Reformation. Council of Trent | 1789 French Revolution ca. 1800 Industrial Revolution | ||||
Except for Protestant North America, medieval extractive institutions (i.e., feudalism) have persisted in the New World (Latin America) until today. Such extractive institutions have remained in place, despite the later influence of the Counter-Reformation, the legal codes introduced in the wake of the French Revolution and the II Vatican Council’s promotion of democracy and ecumenism. |
13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | Century |
Roman law | Civil law | ||||||||
Roman Catholic Canon law | |||||||||
Latin American legal tradition within the | |||||||||
Legal tradition of the French Revolution | |||||||||
Legal tradition of the German Revolution, which includes Scandinavian legal tradition | |||||||||
Legal tradition of the Socialist Revolution | Socialist law | ||||||||
Legal tradition of the English Revolution | Common law | ||||||||
Legal tradition of the American Revolution |
Socialist Soviet Law Tradition | Roman Civil Law Tradition | Common-Law Tradition | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
French-Civil-Law | German-Civil-Law | Scandinavian-Law | |||
Protestant-Influenced Legal Origins | |||||
Examples of countries Institutional performance item | Russia, Ukraine (until 1990s), Cuba | Most Latin America, parts of Europe, Africa, and Asia | Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Japan | Denmark, Finland, Norway, Sweden | United Kingdom, Ireland, United States, Canada |
Quality of law enforcement | Low | Lowest | Highest | Highest | High |
Protection of property rights and propensity to market | Lowest | Low | High | High | Highest |
Government interventionism (intrusive regulation, high tax rates) | Highest | High | Low | High | Low |
Overall government efficiency; political freedom, provision of basic goods | Lowest (except for education attainment) | Low | High | Highest | High |
Corruption | Highest | High | Low | Lowest | Low |
Competitiveness | Lowest | Low | Highest | Highest | High |
Catholic Sacrament | Associated Laws |
---|---|
Baptism and the Eucharist | Liturgy, religious doctrine, catechesis, and discipline |
Ordination | Law of the clergy and Church life |
Marriage | Law of sex, marriage, and family life |
Extreme unction | Law of wills, inheritance, and trusts |
Penance | Law of crime, tort, and moral obligation |
Moral Biblical Law (King James Version KJV Bible) | Some Lutherian and Positive Laws under the Ten Commandments * (Witte 2002); (Berman 2003). | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Great Commandment in the New Testament (NT) | Old Testament (OT) | Some Curses of Disobedience (OT & NT) | Some Blessings of Obedience (OT & NT) | ||
The Great Commandment in OT Terms | The Ten Commandments (Exodus 20, 1–17) | ||||
Matthew 22, 34–40 The Great Commandment Master, which is the great commandment in the law? Jesus said unto him, Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thy heart, and with all thy soul, and with all thy mind. This is the first and great commandment. | Deuteronomy 6, 4–5 Hear, O Israel: The Lord our God is one Lord: and thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thine heart, and with all thy soul, and with all thy might. | And God spake all these words, saying, I am the Lord thy God, which have brought thee out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of bondage. 1. Thou shalt have no other gods before me. | Deuteronomy 28 [Verses 15–68 are dedicated to “The Consequences of Disobedience”, for example:] 15: But it shall come to pass, if thou wilt not hearken unto the voice of the Lord thy God, to observe to do all his commandments and his statutes which I command thee this day; that all these curses shall come upon thee, and overtake thee: 33: The fruit of thy land, and all thy labors, shall a nation which thou knowest not eat up; and thou shalt be only oppressed and crushed alway: Revelation 21,8 But the fearful, and unbelieving, and the abominable, and murderers, and whoremongers, and sorcerers, and idolaters, and all liars, shall have their part in the lake which burneth with fire and brimstone: which is the second death. | Deuteronomy 29, 9 Keep therefore the words of this covenant, and do them, that ye may prosper in all that ye do. Deuteronomy 28, 1–2 The Blessings of Obedience And it shall come to pass, if thou shalt hearken diligently unto the voice of the Lord thy God, to observe and to do all his commandments which I command thee this day, that the Lord thy God will set thee on high above all nations of the earth: and all these blessings shall come on thee, and overtake thee, if thou shalt hearken unto the voice of the Lord thy God. Deuteronomy 30, 16 in that I command thee this day to love the Lord thy God, to walk in his ways, and to keep his commandments, and his statutes, and his judgments, that thou mayest live and multiply: and the Lord thy God shall bless thee in the land whither thou goest to possess it. Revelation 22, 14: Blessed are they that do his commandments, that they may have right to the tree of life, and may enter in through the gates into the city. | Religious laws of Lutheran communities. Laws governing orthodox doctrine and liturgy, ecclesiastical polity and property, local clergy and Church administrators. ibid |
2. Thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image, or any likeness of any thing that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth: thou shalt not bow down thyself to them, nor serve them: for I the Lord thy God am a jealous God, visiting the iniquity of the fathers upon the children unto the third and fourth generation of them that hate me; and showing mercy unto thousands of them that love me, and keep my commandments. | |||||
3. Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain: for the Lord will not hold him guiltless that taketh his name in vain. | |||||
4. Remember the sabbath day, to keep it holy. Six days shalt thou labor, and do all thy work: but the seventh day is the sabbath of the Lord thy God: in it thou shalt not do any work, thou, nor thy son, nor thy daughter, thy manservant, nor thy maidservant, nor thy cattle, nor thy stranger that is within thy gates: for in six days the Lord made heaven and earth, the sea, and all that in them is, and rested the seventh day: wherefore the Lord blessed the sabbath day, and hallowed it. | |||||
Matthew 22, 39–40 And the second is like unto it, Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself. On these two commandments hang all the law and the prophets. | Leviticus 19, 17–18 Thou shalt not hate thy brother in thine heart: thou shalt in any wise rebuke thy neighbor, and not suffer sin upon him. Thou shalt not avenge, nor bear any grudge against the children of thy people, but thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself: I am the Lord. | 5. Honor thy father and thy mother: that thy days may be long upon the land which the Lord thy God giveth thee. | Civil law of sex, marriage, and family | ||
6. Thou shalt not kill. | Criminal law | ||||
7. Thou shalt not commit adultery. | Civil law of sex, marriage, and family | ||||
8. Thou shalt not steal. | Law of property, criminal law | ||||
9. Thou shalt not bear false witness against thy neighbor. | Law of contract [trust] and delict. Law of civil procedure, evidence, and defamation | ||||
10. Thou shalt not covet thy neighbor’s house, thou shalt not covet thy neighbor’s wife, nor his manservant, nor his maidservant, nor his ox, nor his ass, nor any thing that is thy neighbor’s. | Law of contract and delict. Laws of crimes and civil offences |
Legal System | Religious Source | Fundamental Moral Beliefs Inspiring Law | Main Influencer | Model of Church–State and Citizen Relations in Each Legal System * |
---|---|---|---|---|
1. Roman and Catholic canon law (from before Christ to the present) | Roman Paganism and Roman Catholicism | The sacraments, scholasticism, tradition, selected sacred texts | Thomas Aquinas | |
2. German Revolution (from the 16th century) | Lutheranism | Initially, only the Holy Scriptures (Sola Scriptura); conceptualism; later also tradition | Martin Luther | |
3. English Revolution (from the 17th century) | Anglo-Calvinism Puritanism | The Holy Scriptures (i.e., the Ten Commandments); empiricism; historical tradition | John Calvin | |
4. United States Revolution (from the 18th century) | Dissenting Protestantism | The Holy Scriptures; the core principles of religious freedom and Church–State separationism (i.e., disestablishment of a national religion, liberty of conscience, free exercise of religion, equality of a plurality of faiths before the law) | Milton; Locke | |
5. French Revolution (from the 18th and 19th centuries) | Deism | A Creator’s gift of reason and people’s freewill of exercising this. Reason-based natural law and the supremacy of public opinion. Rationalism | Rousseau | |
6. Russian Revolution (20th century) | Atheism | Soviet Marxist-Leninist atheism advocating a classless society. Altruistic idealism | Marx; Engels |
Estimate | Standardised | Std. Error | t Value | Pr(>|t|) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
(Intercept) | 2.74106 | 0 | 0.274644 | 9.98 | 2.25 × 10−16 | *** |
EPI | 0.026048 | 0.586 | 0.002671 | 9.752 | 6.86 × 10−16 | *** |
Mulatto (ethn) | −0.443397 | −0.117 | 0.172934 | −2.564 | 0.011951 | * |
Asian (ethn) | −1.880652 | −0.194 | 0.434192 | −4.331 | 3.74 × 10−5 | *** |
PROTESTANT (S.R) | 0.577261 | 0.223 | 0.168104 | 3.434 | 0.00089 | *** |
Catholics (%) | −0.574504 | −0.273 | 0.220611 | −2.604 | 0.010722 | * |
Orthodox (%) | −0.78216 | −0.27 | 0.23189 | −3.373 | 0.001085 | ** |
Protestants (%) | −0.541959 | −0.146 | 0.310636 | −1.745 | 0.084344 | . |
Muslims (%) | −0.472164 | −0.203 | 0.234843 | −2.011 | 0.047269 | * |
GERMAN (L.O.) | 0.942412 | 0.229 | 0.1817 | 5.187 | 1.25 × 10−6 | *** |
--- |
Estimate | Standardised | Std. Error | t Value | Pr(>|t|) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
(Intercept) | 2.68713 | 0 | 0.411929 | 6.523 | 3.22 × 10−9 | *** |
EPI | 0.031948 | 0.718076 | 0.003588 | 8.904 | 3.35 × 10−14 | *** |
Caucasian (ethn) | 0.3062 | 0.182286 | 0.137576 | 2.226 | 2.84 × 10−2 | * |
Mulatto (ethn) | −0.49164 | −0.129827 | 0.212469 | −2.314 | 0.022804 | * |
Asian (ethn) | −2.262534 | −0.233818 | 0.607969 | −3.721 | 0.000334 | *** |
Dogmas | −0.06555 | −0.161069 | 0.033539 | −1.954 | 5.36 × 10−2 | . |
SOCIALIST (L.O.) | −0.223811 | −0.125531 | 0.111884 | −2 | 0.048283 | * |
GERMAN (L.O.) | 0.608521 | 0.147437 | 0.221393 | 2.749 | 0.007151 | ** |
Catholics (%) | −0.435477 | −0.217661 | 0.131934 | −3.301 | 0.001355 | ** |
Muslims (%) | −0.349915 | −0.155187 | 0.191688 | −1.825 | 0.071044 | . |
Orthodox (%) | −0.742669 | −0.235604 | 0.192192 | −3.864 | 0.000203 | *** |
--- |
Estimate | Standardised | Std. Error | t Value | Pr(>|t|) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
(Intercept) | 1.94889 | 0 | 0.205025 | 9.506 | 1.57 × 10−15 | *** |
EPI | 0.032097 | 0.721417 | 0.003403 | 9.433 | 2.25 × 10−15 | *** |
Caucasian (ethn) | 0.233095 | 0.138765 | 0.137925 | 1.69 | 9.42 × 10−2 | . |
Mulatto (ethn) | −0.432751 | −0.114276 | 0.197873 | −2.187 | 0.03115 | * |
Asian (ethn) | −1.41671 | −0.146408 | 0.503625 | −2.813 | 0.00594 | ** |
CATHOLIC (S.R) | −0.245126 | −0.156268 | 0.091698 | −2.673 | 8.82 × 10−3 | ** |
PROTESTANT (S.R) | 0.307335 | 0.118639 | 0.147376 | 2.085 | 0.03966 | * |
SOCIALIST (L.O.) | −0.232813 | −0.130581 | 0.113454 | −2.052 | 0.04286 | * |
GERMAN (L.O.) | 0.60705 | 0.147081 | 0.231532 | 2.622 | 0.01015 | * |
--- |
Estimate | Standardised | Std. Error | t Value | Pr(>|t|) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
(Intercept) | 1.583 | 0 | 0.48642 | 3.254 | 0.00188 | ** |
Hostilities | 0.07461 | 0.18955 | 0.03368 | 2.215 | 0.03063 | * |
German (lang) | 0.82223 | 0.24086 | 0.26625 | 3.088 | 0.00307 | ** |
Catholics (%) | −0.49853 | −0.29507 | 0.15608 | −3.194 | 0.00225 | ** |
Orthodox (%) | −1.04274 | −0.44616 | 0.21537 | −4.842 | 9.66 × 10−6 | *** |
EPI | 0.03829 | 0.52268 | 0.00596 | 6.424 | 2.53 × 10−8 | *** |
--- |
Estimate | Standardised | Std. Error | t Value | Pr(>|t|) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
(Intercept) | 1.606434 | 0 | 0.479997 | 3.347 | 0.00143 | ** |
Hostilities | 0.075303 | 0.191317 | 0.033201 | 2.268 | 0.027 | * |
GERMAN (L.O.) | 0.759773 | 0.260367 | 0.224315 | 3.387 | 0.00126 | ** |
Catholic_pop | −0.499403 | −0.295584 | 0.153919 | −3.245 | 0.00194 | ** |
Orthodox_pop | −1.04258 | −0.446087 | 0.212236 | −4.912 | 7.49 × 10−6 | *** |
EPI | 0.037974 | 0.518342 | 0.005882 | 6.456 | 2.24 × 10−8 | *** |
--- |
© 2019 by the author. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
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Garcia Portilla, J. “Ye Shall Know Them by Their Fruits”: Prosperity and Institutional Religion in Europe and the Americas. Religions 2019, 10, 362. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel10060362
Garcia Portilla J. “Ye Shall Know Them by Their Fruits”: Prosperity and Institutional Religion in Europe and the Americas. Religions. 2019; 10(6):362. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel10060362
Chicago/Turabian StyleGarcia Portilla, Jason. 2019. "“Ye Shall Know Them by Their Fruits”: Prosperity and Institutional Religion in Europe and the Americas" Religions 10, no. 6: 362. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel10060362