Zhao Yizhen and the Thunder Method Inherited from His Master Zhang Tianquan

Abstract

Zhao Yizhen (?–1382) was one of the most important figures in the history of Daoism in the Yuan and Ming Dynasties. His master, Zhang Tianquan (1275–?), was recorded to be a disciple of Jin Pengtou (?–1341), a famous master of inner alchemy in the late Yuan, in the poems written by Zhao Yizhen himself and in the biography of Zhao Yizhen written by Zhang Yuchu (1359–1410), the 43rd Heavenly Master. According to these records, we know that the Method that Zhao Yizhen learned from Zhang Tianquan was only about inner alchemy, inherited from Jin Pengtou. But this story does not include all the facts. Since we have found the biography of Zhang Tianquan, which is preserved in rare editions of Lishi Zhenxian Tidao Tongjian collected in the libraries of Beijing and Taipei, we can determine that what Zhang Tianquan was aware of and famous for was indeed the Thunder Method of Hunyuan. With the evidence found in Daofa Huiyuan, we can conclude that Zhao Yizhen was also very familiar with the Thunder Method of Hunyuan, which must have been inherited from Zhang Tianquan, and he tried to merge it into his own ritual system of the Qingwei tradition.

1. Introduction

Rising in the Song-Yuan period, the Thunder Method 雷法 was a complex system of Daoist exorcist rituals, with the Method summoning the Thunder Marshals as its core. Using talismans and spells, the ritual master 法師 normally summoned Thunder Marshals to solve drought problems for local society or to heal people who were possessed by demons. Thunder Methods from different traditions or areas might deploy different Thunder Marshals as the commander-in-chief of their Thunder divine troops. Generally, most kinds of Thunder Methods could be included in the two main Daoist traditions, Qingwei 清微 and Shenxiao 神霄, according to Zhang Yuchu 張宇初, the 43rd Heavenly Master. Further, most of the ritual manuals or texts of these kinds of Thunder Methods are preserved in Daofa Huiyuan 道法會元, which were related to Zhao Yizhen.

Zhao Yizhen (?–1382) 趙宜真 (also named Yuanyang 原陽/元陽), the master of Liu Yuanran 劉淵然, was one of the most important figures in the history of Daoism in the late Yuan and early Ming periods. Scholars have contributed to field discussions about his teaching and transmissions of the Thunder Method, as well as inner alchemy. As a disciple of Zeng Guikuan 曾貴寬 (also named Chenwai 塵外), who stood for the Qingwei 清微 School of Thunder Method in the South Jiangxi 江西 area, Zhao Yizhen was known for his compilation of ritual texts of the Qingwei tradition and was listed as a patriarch of the Qingwei School (Schipper 1987; Wang 2016; Xu 2016; Gao 2016). As the successor of the Qingwei School, Zhao Yizhen also acquired and taught methods of other Daoist traditions, but he did not claim to be a successor of those Daoist Schools elsewhere (Xu 2021). In fact, although the question of whether Zhao Yizhen inherited the Jingming 淨明 School has been clarified, he actually had a certain understanding of the Method of the Jingming tradition, with the evidence in his note of “the treatment of plague and disease in the Method of Jingming” 凈明法中治勞瘵方 (Xu 2016, 2018). Similarly, although Zhao Yizhen did transfer to study under many other Daoist masters, he admitted that he learned only the Method of inner alchemy from them, which he traced back to the teaching of Jing Pengtou 金蓬頭, a famous Daoist master of inner alchemy in the late Yuan. He never mentioned that he learned from them other kinds of Thunder Methods in addition to that of the Qingwei tradition. Moreover, his biographies have no record of learning this Method either.

Based on historical resources newly found in the libraries of Beijing and Taipei, this article attempts to answer questions such as: Did Zhao Yizhen himself and the authors of his biographies tell us all the facts? Did these so-called masters of inner alchemy pass to Zhao Yizhen the Method of inner alchemy only? Is there a possibility that Zhao Yizhen had been the successor of some other Daoist School of the Thunder Method in addition to the Qingwei School? If so, how did Zhao Yizhen manage the relationship between the Qingwei tradition and other kinds of Thunder Methods in his own religious life?

2. Copies of the Early Ming Edition of Lishi Zhenxian Tidao Tongjian with Supplemental Biographies of Zhang Tianquan and Zhao Yizhen

Zhang Tianquan 張天全 was one of the Daoist masters of inner alchemy under whom Zhao Yizhen studied. He was one of the most famous disciples of Jin Pengtou 金蓬頭, listed in the “Biography of Jin Pengtou,” in juan 5 of LiShi Zhenxian Tidao Tongjian Xubian 歷世真仙體道通鑒續編 of the Daozang 道藏 edition.

Although he did not mention Zhang Tianquan in his “Biography of Jin Ye’an” 金野菴傳, Zhang Yuchu did mention him in his “Biography of Zhao Yuanyang” 趙原陽. In juan 4 of Xianquan Ji 峴泉集, Zhang said, “He (Zhao Yizhen) then studied under Zhang Tianquan (also named Tiexuan 鐵玄), who lived in the Daoist Temple Taiyu 泰宇觀in Ji’an 吉安. And Zhang Tianquan learned from Jin Ye’an, who lived in Mount Longhu 龍虎山, the secrets of inner and external alchemy to extract Golden Elixirs” 復師吉之泰宇觀張天全，別號鐵玄。張師龍虎山金野庵，得金液內外丹訣.

Additionally, in his poem “A Memorial to My Study Experience” 紀學, in juan 1 of Yuanyang Zi Fayu 原陽子法語, Zhao Yizhen himself once told us that “My Master Tiexuan, from the Daoist Temple Shouchang 壽昌觀, once studied under Master Jin Pengtou, who lived in Peak Shengjing 聖井峰 (of Mount Longhu). Then, he went back to Mount Qinghua 青華山and founded the Daoist Temple Taiyu. There, to fulfill my hunger for Dao, he fed me with the Method of inner alchemy. Then, I left and studied under Master Li Fuzi 李夫子 (named Xuanyi 玄一), from Nanchang 南昌. I heard the name of Master Feng Waishi 馮外史 (named Puyi 蒲衣) from Master Li. Master Feng was also a disciple of Master Jin and had achieved a high level of inner alchemy. At that time, he stayed in Longsha 龍沙(the sandbars of River Zhang 章江 of Nanchang). So I transferred to study under him” 壽昌仙伯鐵玄翁，曾於聖井師金公。歸向青華開泰宇，食我法乳蘇疲癃。繼後從遊李夫子，聞有蒲衣馮外史。亦師金祖紹仙宗，駐鶴龍沙明至理.

According to Zhao Yizhen’s own narrative and the historical records at his time or later ones cited above, we only know that what Zhang Tianquan was good at and what Zhao Yizhen learned from him was the Method of inner alchemy (perhaps external alchemy also) inherited from Jin Pengtou. Since we do not know whether all the Masters, Zhang Tianquan, Li Xuanyi, and Feng Puyi had passed different types of Thunder Method to Zhao Yizhen or not, we do not consider whether Zhao Yizhen had learned from them other Methods, especially other kinds of Thunder Methods in addition to the Qingwei tradition.

Things changed. The biography of Zhang Tianquan added to Lishi Zhenxian Tidao Tongjian, a manuscript of the Ming Dynasty and a printed edition from the late Ming, gives us the opportunity to determine the details of Zhang Tianquan’s life and the relationship between him and his disciple, Zhao Yizhen, especially in the part on the Thunder Method.

2.1. The Ming Manuscript Collected in the National Library of Beijing

The Daozang 道藏 edition of Lishi Zhenxian Tidao Tongjian has a main part of 53 juan, supplemented with a part of five juan entitled “Xubian” 續編 and a part of six juan entitled “Houji” 後集. The date of the compilation of Lishi Zhenxian Tidao Tongjian is uncertain, but it is perhaps during two decades after the fall of the Song Dynasty (Lévi 2004, p. 888). The latest date recorded in Lishi Zhenxian Tidao Tongjian, the Daozang edition, is Jin Pengtou’s death. However, there is a mistake with that date, which must be 1341 and not 1336 (Zheng 2006, p. 156). The first year of the Zhizheng era至正of the Yuan Dynasty was 1341. Zhang Tianquan also died in a year of the Zhizheng era, according to his biography, which we refer to below. Further, Zhao Yizhen died in 1382, the 15th year of the Hongwu era 洪武 of the Ming Dynasty, as we know. While Zhang Tianquan was mentioned in the “Biography of Jin Pengtou,” and Zhao Yizhen was mentioned in the “Biography of Huang Leiyuan” 黃雷淵, these dates suggest that Lishi Zhenxian Tidao Tongjian had once been reprinted and supplemented during the early Ming.

The Ming manuscript collected in the National Library of Beijing has only 25 juan remaining, with the editing principles listed by Zhao Daoyi 趙道一, the Contents of Qianjuan 前卷, and a piece of a note written by Yu Zhenzi 玉真子at the front. According to the Contents, the Qianjuan should have 36 juan, but juan 24 to 33 had been lost long before the transcription. The content of this Qianjuan corresponds to the 53-juan part and the five-juan part of the Daozang edition, except with the biographies of Zhang Tianquan and Zhao Yizhen added. Moreover, the part of Houji of Daozang edition in which female immortals are recorded is totally omitted from the Ming manuscript. According to Yu Zhenzi, when he received the manuscript from some Mr. Zunwang 遵王, he was told that there should be a part of 6 juan named Houji somewhere, but it had been lost earlier.

This “Mr. Zunwang” may be Qian Zeng 錢曾, a famous collector of rare books in the early Qing. He did once possess some edition of Lishi Zhenxian Tidao Tongjian. As he commented in his reading notes Dushu Minqiu Ji 讀書敏求記, “The book has two parts, one of 36 juan entitled Qianji 前集 and the other of 6 juan entitled Houji. Qianji includes biographies from Xuanyuan Huangdi 軒轅皇帝 to Zhao Yuanyang 趙元陽. Houji includes biographies from Wushang Yuanjun 無上元君 to Sun Xian’gu 孫仙姑. It may be divided by the immortals’ genders, I think. The book was compiled by Zhao Daoyi, a Taoist from Mount Fuyun 浮雲山. At the front of the book, he placed a piece of a document, presented to Haotian Shangdi 昊天上帝” 真仙體道通鑒,前集三十六卷,後集六卷。前集，軒轅皇帝至趙元陽止。後集，無上元君至孫仙姑止。蓋以女仙故，而為之區分也。浮雲山道士趙道一編修。前有表，進之昊天上帝. What Qian Zeng said is consistent with the manuscript, except for the piece of the document. At least, we may use the manuscript as a copy of some edition from the Ming period.

Fortunately, in the manuscript, we find reference numbers such as “Jiaji” 甲集, “Yiji” 乙集, and “Bingji” 丙集 on the first leaf of juan 1, 4, and 8. Most importantly, we find a list of the names of benefactors on the last leaf of juan 4, including Liu Daoan 劉道安, the first chair of the Daoist Palace Chaotian 朝天宮in the capital (Nanjing 南京); Wang Shizhen 汪士真, from County Haiyan 海鹽縣; Zhong Benqing 鍾本清, from Hangzhou State杭州府; and 22 other persons from those places. Although we do not know who Liu Daoan was, the Daoist Palace Chaotian was known to be built in 1384, the 17th year of the Hongwu era. Further, Zhong Benqing was once the abbot of the Daoist Monastery Chongyang 重陽庵in Hangzhou in the Hongwu era, according to the 1475 stele “Chongyang an ji” 重陽庵記 and the poem presented to him with the date of 1375, the 8th year of the Hongwu era, both of which are preserved in Chongyang An Ji 重陽庵集. Moreover, we find the name “Wang Shizhen” as a Taoist living in the Daoist Temple Qizhen 棲真觀 in Haiyan, in juan 3 of the 1748 edition of Haiyan Xian Tujing 海鹽縣圖經. He was the official of the Daoist Registry of County Haiyan 海鹽縣道會司 when the temple was renovated in 1412, the 10th year of the Yongle era 永樂. All of these points suggest that the manuscript was copied from some edition, 36 juan with 6 juan supplemented, printed in the Jiangnan江南 area (possibly in Nanjing) in the early Ming (possibly in the Yongle era).

This suggestion can be confirmed by the postscript of Lishi Zhenxian Tidao Tongjian written by Yang Shiqi 楊士奇, a famous scholar and once the Prime Minister in the early Ming. He told us that “The book has 36 juan and is compiled by Zhao Daoyi, a Taoist from Mount Fuyun. It contains biographies of immortals included in Liu Xiang’s 劉向 and Ge Hong’s 葛洪 works. Although with a preface written by Liu Chenweng 劉辰翁, it must have been supplemented after Liu’s death. Zhao Daoyi lived at the same time as Liu. He could not write the biography of Zhao Yuanyang. Since the woodblocks of the book are now stored in the Daoist Palace Chaotian, it might be Liu Yuanran, the disciple of Zhao Yizhen, who decided to add Zhao’s biography. Thanks to Xiao Fengwu 蕭鳳梧, the clerk of Daolu si道錄司 (the Central Daoist Registry), I have 10 volumes on my bookshelves” 真仙體道通鑒三十六卷，浮雲山道士趙道一所編。蓋會粹劉、葛諸家之書為之者也。有須溪先生序。然亦有後人續增者矣。道一與須溪同時，安得復紀趙元陽。此板今在朝天宮，其殆淵然之不泯其師者乎？余家十冊，得之道錄掌書蕭鳳梧. The postscript is preserved in juan 23 of Dongli Xuji 東里續集, with no date. Further, we know nothing about Xiao Fengwu except that he was a Taoist of the Daoist Palace Chaotian and came from the hometown of Yang Shiqi, according to the postscript of Liexian Zhuan 列仙傳, also preserved in juan 23 of Dongli Xuji. Since Emperor Yongle moved the capital to the north in 1421, the 19th year of the Yongle era, the postscript should have been written before then. Although we do not have an accurate date for the printing, the Daoist palace Chaotian edition seems to be the original from which the manuscript was transcribed.

2.2. The Ming Edition Collected in the National Library of Beijing and Taipei

Bearing the name of Lizhi 李贄, the famous intellectual after Wang Yangming 王陽明, the Ming edition collected in the National Library of Beijing and Taipei must have been recompiled and printed in the late Ming.

The Ming edition has 36 juan, which seems to be the same as the Ming manuscript. However, the content of juan 1 to 4 was replaced with female immortals from Wushang Yuanjun to Wangnv 王女, corresponding to juan 1 to 4 of Houji of the Daozang edition. Moreover, the Ming edition has a preface written by Zhao Daoyi, also corresponding to the postscript of Xubian of the Daozang edition. Additionally, the Contents of the Ming edition include Zhang Tianquan, Zhao Yuanyang, and Liu Yuanran, which are not listed in the Contents of the Ming manuscript.

However, these differences do not mean that it is totally different from the Ming manuscript. Juan 36 of the Ming edition actually has no biography of Liu Yuanran and ends with the biography of Zhang Tianquan and the biography of Zhao Yizhen, the same as the Ming manuscript. We can infer that one of the main resources of the recompilation of the Ming edition was the same as the original for the Ming manuscript.

2.3. The Fragment of the So-Called Yuan Edition and the Fragment of the Early Ming Edition Collected in the National Library of Beijing

The fragment of the so-called Yuan edition and the fragment of the early Ming edition collected in the National Library of Beijing both have 22 characters in every line and 12 lines in every half leaf, with a black margin and two lines on the left and right sides of the frame. The style of character in two fragments seems to be the same also. However, the lines of the frame of the so-called Yuan edition seem a bit wider, and there are counting symbols printed in the margin of the so-called Yuan edition. Although we cannot exactly know whether the fragment of the so-called Yuan edition was printed in the Yuan period (Luo 2018, p. 39) or actually printed in the early Ming, the two fragments apparently do not belong to the same edition.

The two fragments both have only some of the 36 juan remaining, with no overlap. The fragment of the so-called Yuan edition has only juan 34, 35, and 36 of Qianjuan. Juan 34 has only a few leaves of part of the “Biography of Lin Lingsu” 林靈素 and all leaves of the “Biography of Wang Wenqing” 王文卿. Juan 35 has the biographies of the Quanzhen 全真 School from Wangzhe 王嚞 to Liu Chuxuan 劉處玄 intact. Juan 36 has biographies of immortals from Huangfu Tan 皇甫坦 to Fu Deyi 傅得一 (only a part remaining), with a leaf of part of the Contents of Houji, from Mozhou Nv 莫州女 to Sun Xian’gu, and the postscript written by Zhao Daoyi. Further, we can find reference numbers such as “Rener” 壬二 and ”Rensan” 壬三 printed on the first leaves of juan 35 and 36, like the reference numbers found in the Ming manuscript. However, since the remaining content of juan 36 is incomplete, we do not know whether or not juan 36 of this so-called Yuan edition has the biographies of Zhang Tianquan and Zhao Yizhen.

The fragment of the early Ming edition has juan 21 to 27 of Qianjuan. Juan 21 has biographies of immortals from Cen Daoshun 岑道順 (only a sentence remaining) to Song Yu 宋愚. Moreover, juan 22 has biographies of immortals from Wei Shanjun 韋善俊 to Lan Caihe 藍采和, juan 23 from Zhang Guo 張果 to Tan Qiaoyan 譚峭岩, juan 24 from Ye Fashan 葉法善 to Tan Qiao 譚峭, juan 25 from Xue Jichang 薛季昌 to Nie Shidao 聶師道, juan 26 from Zhang Yun 張氳 to Nie Shaoyuan 聶紹元, and juan 27 from Xu Zuoqing 徐左卿 to Huang Sun 黃損. We can also find reference numbers such as “Gengji” 庚集and ”Genger” 庚二 printed on the first leaves of juan 25 and 26. We can still find a name list, including 13 persons on the last leaf of juan 26, which should be the name list of benefactors like the one that we found in the Ming manuscript. Since the fragment has only the content before juan 36, we also do not know whether or not juan 36 of this early Ming edition has the biographies of Zhang Tianquan and Zhao Yizhen.

Still, we can infer that both fragments, whether printed in the Yuan period or the early Ming, could be the basis of the early Ming edition from which the Ming manuscript was transcribed, if not the original.

3. Biography of Zhang Tianquan and the Thunder Method of Hunyuan That He Passed to Zhao Yizhen

The biography of Zhang Tianquan and the biography of Zhao Yizhen were added after the biography of Jin Pengtou in juan 36 of the early Ming edition was printed in the Jiangnan area. Additionally, the biography of Jin Pengtou is not exactly the same as that in the Daozang edition. It has a paean to Jin’s portrait written by Yu Ji 虞集 added at the end. The biography of Mo Yueding 莫月鼎 before it also has a paean to Mo’s portrait written by Yu Ji added at the end. As the biography of Zhang Tianquan mentions at the end that “For detail, please refer to the epitaph of his Daoist life 道行碑 that Yu Ji wrote for him,” we can assume that the supplemental work of the early Ming edition depended on some edition of the collected works of Yu Ji.

In fact, Yu Ji had written many epitaphs of Taoists living in Yuan Dynasty, such as Zhang Liusun 張留孫, Chen Rixin 陳日新, and Huang Yuanji 黃元吉, who were much more famous and important than Zhang Tianquan. However, we cannot find their biographies added to Lishi Zhenxian Tidao Tongjian, which means that the supplementing of the biography of Zhang Tianquan and the biography of Zhao Yizhen should imply the intention to promote the prestige and status of Zhang Tianquan and Zhao Yizhen. Achieving a high position in the court, Liu Yuanran had compiled and printed many Daoist and medical books dedicated to his master Zhao Yizhen (Xu 2014). As Yang Shiqi said, Liu Yuanran or his disciples had the aspiration to do so.

Zhao Yizhen had transferred to study under many Daoist masters. Zhang Tianquan was just one of them, famous but not very important. The most important one must have been Zeng Guikuan, who stood for the Qingwei School. Moreover, Zhao Yizhen claimed that he was the orthodox successor of the Qingwei School in prefaces and postscripts preserved in Daofa Huiyuan, as we know. In this sense, if Liu Yuanran or his disciples wanted to promote the prestige of their lineage, he or they should have created or added a biography of Zeng Guikuan. Oddly, we cannot find Zeng’s biography added to Lishi Zhenxian Tidao Tongjian.

This omission might be due to the limits of the records of Zeng Guikuan’s life. Beyond a successor of the Qingwei School listed in the “Biography of Huang Leiyuan,” we only know that Zeng Guikuan was a Taoist who lived in the Daoist Pavilion of Dongyuan 洞淵閣 in County Anfu 安福縣 of Ji’an 吉安, according to the stele written by Ouyang Xuan 歐陽玄, preserved in juan 9 of Guizhai Wenji 圭齋文集. There are not enough resources at hand to write a biography of Zeng Guikuan, and it is much more convenient to rewrite a biography of Zhang Tianquan from the epitaph that already exists.

3.1. Biography of Zhang Tianquan as the Simplified Version of the Epitaph of Zhang Tianquan’s Daoist Life

Although we cannot find the epitaph of Zhang Tianquan’s Daoist life in any edition of the collected works of Yu Ji now collected in the libraries of China or other places, there should be once have been a full-length epitaph on which the supplementing work was based. As the simplified version of the epitaph, the biography of Zhang Tianquan does give us some details of Zhang Tianquan’s Daoist life:

Perfected Zhang was named Xinglao 星老, also called Tianquan. He was born in a native family with a good educational background in County Ancheng 安成縣 of Ji’an. His grandfather and father both had longevity. One night, his mother had a dream of swallowing the light of stars and felt to be pregnant when she woke up. When he was born in the morning of September 27, the Jihai 己亥 year of the Yuan Dynasty, the delivery room was full of the sacred light. He was born peculiar. When he was young, he desired to learn to be an immortal, and he asked his father for permission to be a Taoist. Then, he left home to live as a Taoist in the Daoist Palace Shouchang in the County. However, the Daoist Palace was plentiful in property. It is unsuitable for a Taoist to live a pure and simple life there, he thought. Therefore, he decided to leave to trace the Dao. He went to study under Zha Taiyu 查泰宇, from Nankang 南康, the instructor of Confucianism in Wuchang 武昌, who passed the Thunder Method of Hunyun 混元道法 to him. Since then, he performed the Thunder Method successfully and was eager to help the populace with it. He came back home and was fascinated with the quiet and beautiful scene of Mount Qinghua, west of the State. There he founded the Daoist Temple Taiyu, in memory of his master Zha Taiyu. Then he visited and learned the Method of inner alchemy from Dongmen Lao 東門老 (the elder who lived near the east gate) and Jin Pengtou, who lived in Peak Shengjing of Mount Longhu. He learned “Tie zi shi hao” 鐵字十號 (ten pieces of the ode to character iron) and named himself Tiexuan and Lanniu zi 懶牛子. He gradually became popular. The famous and important scholars and advisors at that time all admired him. Yu Ji, the advisor of Cabinet Kuizhang 奎章閣, nominated him to the court. He then was ordained with the honorary title “Perfected of Spirit Concentrated, Deep in Virtue, Salvation for the Masses” 凝神玄德廣濟真人. Because of his preaching of it, the Thunder Method of Hunyuan was popular in Jiangnan area. Moreover, he passed the Method of Dao 道法 to Zhao Yuanyang, whose ancestors came from County Junyi 浚儀縣. One year in the Zhizheng era, he wrote a hymn, and passed away sitting there. For detail, please refer to the epitaph of his Daoist life that Yu Ji wrote for him.

真人姓張，名星老，字天全。世家吉之安成，代習詩書。祖、父俱有耆德。其母夫人一夕夢吞星光，覺而有娠。以元之己亥九月二十七日辰時，神光滿室，真人生焉。生而神異。自幼即慕神仙之學，乃請命于父。遂于邑之壽昌宮出家。見其殷富，不遂清虛恬澹之志，奮然棄去。師事武昌教授南康查泰宇，受混元道法之傳。由是，道法大闡，利濟之心切切。後登郡西之青華山，見其山水幽勝，乃開基建觀，以泰宇為名，示不忘其師也。復參東門老，及龍虎山聖井金蓬頭，究竟金液大丹之旨。得鐵字十號，別號鐵玄、懶牛子。名著四方。當時名公閣老莫不敬慕。待奎章閣學士虞文靖公薦之於朝，制授凝神玄德廣濟真人。混元教法行於江南者，由真人倡之。以道法付浚儀趙元陽。至正年間，書偈，坐解。虞文靖公為述《道行碑》甚詳焉。

The historical information preserved in the biography cited above can be verified with the gazettes of Jiangxi. The Daoist Temple Taiyu was recorded in the 1781 edition of the gazette of County Luling 廬陵縣. According to the stele “Chongxiu Qinghua guan ji” 重修青華觀記 written by Liu Dunxin 劉敦信, the Daoist Temple Taiyu was founded in 1320, the seventh year of the Yanyou era 延佑; it burned down at the fall of the Yuan Dynasty and was rebuilt and renamed Qinghua by Zhu Ximing 朱熙明, a disciple of Zhang Tianquan, in 1384, the 17th year of the Hongwu era.

The biography says that Zhang Tianquan was born in the Jihai year of the Yuan Dynasty, which seems to be 1299, the third year of the Dade 大德 era. However, there must be a mistake with that date. If he was born in 1299, Zhang Tianquan would have been only 21 when founded the Daoist Temple Taiyu and would have been younger than 50 when died before Yu Ji’s death (1348, the eight year of the Zhizheng era), which seems to be too young. Furthermore, it was uncommon for Yu Ji not to use “Dade” but instead to use the character “Yuan” to describe the year, which meant that the date must be one of the first years of Yuan Dynasty when the Song Dynasty had still not been conquered. Thus, we can infer that the phrase “Jihai” here is an error for “Yihai” 乙亥, the 12th year of Zhiyuan era 至元 (1275), corresponding to the first year of the Deyou 德佑 era of Emperor Gongdi of the Song Dynasty 宋恭帝. In that case, Zhang Tianquan would have been 45 when he founded the Daoist Temple Taiyu and died in his 70s, which seems more reasonable.

His master Zha Taiyu was mentioned in “Biography of Lei Mo’an” 雷默庵, in juan 5 of Lishi Zhenxian Tidao Tongjian Xubian of the Daozang edition. He was one of the three most important disciples of Lei Mo’an (the other two were Lu 廬 and Li 李, from west Shu 蜀). In 1270, the sixth year of the Xianchun era 咸淳, Lei Mo’an received the revelation from Lu Da’an 路大安（an immortal said to have lived in the Six Dynasty）and Heavenly Lord Xin 辛天君 (a Thunder Marshal, also named Hanchen 漢臣or Zhongyi 忠義) at his own home altar in Town Jinniu 金牛鎮 of Wuchang, and originated the Thunder Method of Hunyuan. As the instructor of Confucianism in Wuchang, Zha Taiyu had the convenience of visiting Lei Mo’an and learning the Thunder Method of Hunyuan from him. He was accepted as the patriarch of the southeast branch of the Hunyuan School (Xu 2017). As the disciple of Zha Taiyu, Zhang Tianquan should have transmitted the lineage of Lei Mo’an and been the successor of the southeast branch of the Hunyuan school too.

This lineage can be confirmed by ritual texts preserved in Daozang and the local memory recorded by the literati of Ji’an.

Generally, there are two texts of the Thunder Method of Hunyuan preserved in Daofa Huiyuan. One text is entitled Hunyuan Liutian Ruyi Dafa 混元六天如意大法, the same title as the scroll that Lei Mo’an received from Lu Da’an. The other, entitled Hunyuan Liutian Miaodao Yiqi Ruyi Dafa 混元六天妙道一炁如意大法, has a name list of patriarchs in which Perfected Zha (Thunder Emissary of Celestial Perfected, Secondary Minister of Golden Gate of Nine Heaven) 九天金闕少宰仙真雷使查真人 and Perfected Zhang (named Tianquan) 天全張真人 appear at the end (Qing 1999, p. 24). This fact means that Zhang Tianquan was accepted as the patriarch of the Hunyuan School after Zha Taiyu, and the text should represent the southeast branch of the Hunyuan School, while the former text might represent the west Shu branch of the Hunyuan School transmitted by Lu and Li.

Still, we have evidence of Zhang Tianquan’s practice of the Thunder Method of Hunyuan. Li Qi 李祁, the local literatus, highly praised Zhang Tianquan in his postscript “Ti Zhang Tianquan Suoke Tianjun Jiangbi Hou” 題張天全所刻天君降筆後, preserved in juan 10 of Yunyang Ji 雲陽集. He wrote, “Mr. Zhang Tianquan is earnest and sincere in performing the teaching of Hunyuan to help the populace” 張君天全以精誠累行，持混元教，濟度群品.

Conversely, a story preserved in juan 31 of the gazette of State Ji’an 吉安府, the 1660 edition, made an ironic criticism of Zhang Tianquan. In the story, a local immortal named Suoyi Xian 蓑衣仙 once visited Mount Qinghua and was welcomed by Zhang Tianquan. He asked Zhang Tianquan to leave with him but was refused. He then left a comment behind: “Misguided by the man with a cyan face, this man (Zhang Tianquan) would fail to achieve the Dao all his life” 此人為青面老子誤一生. As annotated, “the man with a cyan face” here refers to Heavenly Lord Xin, who revealed the Thunder Method of Hunyuan to Lei Mo’an and was also the commander-in-chief summoned by the Thunder Method of Hunyuan. The comment implies that the locals of Ji’an regarded Zhang Tianquan as a fanatic of the Thunder Method of Hunyuan.

3.2. The Thunder Method of Hunyuan Zhao Yizhen Inherited from Zhang Tianquan

As cited above, the biography stated that Zhang Tianquan “passed the Method of Dao to Zhao Yuanyang”. The meaning of “Method of Dao” here is obscure. Since the former sentence made clear that Zhang Tianquan contributed much to the Thunder Method of Hunyuan, “Method of Dao” here should refer to the Thunder Method of Hunyuan. It seems indubitable in context. However, the biography is a simplified version, and the epitaph of Zhang Tianquan’s Daoist life has been lost. Since the biography of Zhao Yizhen, added to the end of the biography of Zhang Tianquan, only mentions that Zhang Tianquan was a disciple of Jin Pengtou, while Zhang Yuchu also used the phrase “Method of Dao” in his “Biography of Jin Ye’an” to refer to the Method of inner alchemy, we cannot exclude the possibility that “Method of Dao” here might refer to the Method of inner alchemy. In other words, we are not sure that the true meaning of “Method of Dao” in the original text of the epitaph must be the Thunder Method of Hunyuan.

Fortunately, although Zhao Yizhen himself or the authors of his biographies made no mention of the Thunder Method of Hunyuan, we can still find proof that Zhao Yizhen inherited the Thunder Method of Hunyuan from Zhang Tianquan.

As mentioned above, there are two texts of the Thunder Method of Hunyuan in Daofa Huiyuan. In addition, we find a third text, a short piece of the Method of Summoning Heavenly Lord Xin, bearing the name of Perfected Lei (Lei Mo’an), also preserved in Daofa Huiyuan. Although these three texts all deploy the Method of Summoning Heavenly Lord Xin as their core, they are different from one another in many details (Xu 2017). Hunyuan Liutian Miaodao Yiqi Ruyi Dafa, the only text related to Zhang Tianquan, has many Thunder Officers, Generals, and Marshals not mentioned in the other two texts. Further, the documents of Qingwei for feats 清微言功文檢 in juan 41 of Daofa Huiyuan, which was compiled by Zhao Yizhen (Boltz 1987, p. 47; Schipper and Yuan 2004, p. 1106), especially the Petition of High Brightness and Golden Mystery 崇明金元章 for informing the Generals and Agents, list Marshal Ma as the Mysterious Official who was in charge of the troops of Hunyuan 混元都統靈官馬元帥, Marshal Xu and Zhao of the bureau of Heavenly Hospital 天醫許趙二元帥, Celestial Officer Zhu and Li of the bureau of Hundreds of Herbs 百藥朱李二仙官, Marshal Ma and Geng of the Bureau of Attacking by Qi 攻炁院馬耿二元帥, Zhang Xiansheng Mountaineer Junior 小翻山張賢聖, and Grand Agents, such as Lv, Qiu, Tian, etc. 呂丘田...諸大功曹, were all the same as in Hunyuan Liutian Miaodao Yiqi Ruyi Dafa. It seems that Zhao Yizhen tried to merge the Thunder Method of Hunyuan that he inherited from Zhang Tianquan into his own ritual system of the Qingwei tradition, at least by way of gathering all the divine troops together.

However, Zhao Yizhen also adopted the Methods of other Daoist traditions. We need further evidence to determine whether he was the successor of Zhang Tianquan’s lineage of the Thunder Method of Hunyuan.

Documents in juan 15, 23, and 32 of Daofa Huiyuan list Zhao Yizhen as the patriarch of Qingwei while giving the full titles of Zhao Yizhen as “Perfected of Hunyuan, Superior Official Administrating the Documents of Qingwei, and Ritual Master of the Great Caves of the Three Radiant Spheres in the Heaven of Highest Purity”上清三景大洞法師清微總章上卿混元真人 (Reiter 2017, p. 97). The full titles of Zhao Yizhen are not only recorded in the standard texts in Daozang but are also applied in practical ritual texts in daily life. For example, printed in the woodblock document “Precious Registry of the Jade Purity for Ascending to the Heaven” 玉清昇天寶籙, a private collection of Prof. Lee Fengmao, the name list of the patriarchs of Qingwei also gives the same full titles for Zhao Yizhen (Lee 2018, p. 275).

Among these titles, ‘’Ritual Master of the Great Caves of the Three Radiant Spheres in the Heaven of Highest Purity” means that Zhao Yizhen had accepted the high level of the Registry. It is no surprise that a famous Taoist such as him attained that level.

“Superior Official of Administrating the Documents of Qingwei” seems to be a combination of the Rank 5 title “Emissary of Administrating the Documents of Qingwei ” 清微總章使 and the Rank 3 title “Superior Official of Dongzhen of Qingwei” 清微洞真上卿 included in the Regulations of ordination ranks and titles of the Qingwei School 清微法職品格 in juan 10 of Daofa Huiyuan. Since the Regulations were newly compiled, maybe the title was endowed according to the lost Old Regulations 旧格, often cited but abolished by Zhao Yizhen. However, it must be a high position (maybe above Rank 3) in the ordination ranks of Qingwei.

Interestingly, “Perfected of Hunyuan” seems to be an honorary title, but it is too simple to be that. Actually, Zhao Yizhen’s honorary title was “Ritual Master of Highly Educated, Broadened the Dao, Purity in Virtue” 崇文廣道純德法師 or “Perfected of Enlightened with Dao, Interpreting the Dao to Populace, Broadened in Virtue, Advocating the Teaching of Dao” 悟道開化廣德弘教真人 (Xu 2018), both of which are long enough to fit his prestige and status. Obviously, “Perfected of Hunyuan” must be an ordination title, but it cannot be found in the Regulations of ordination ranks and titles of the Qingwei School, which means it was not the ordination title of Qingwei. Unsurprisingly, we find it in the Regulations of ordination ranks and titles of Hunyuan School 混元品秩 preserved in the Jade Regulations of the Heavenly Altar of Zhengyi 正一天壇玉格, the 1658 edition collected in the library of Peking University (Goossaert 2013; Goossaert 2022, p. 119; the same content can also be found in a late Qing manuscript transcribed from the 1658 edition, see Liu 2013). It is listed as the Rank 1 title of the Thunder Method of Hunyuan. Although we do not know the exact date of the Regulations of ordination ranks and titles of the Hunyuan School, “Perfected Hunyuan” could not be an ordination title other than that of the Thunder Method of Hunyuan. In a word, the ordination titles given in the documents of Qingwei tell us that Zhao Yizhen was the patriarch of the Qingwei School, as well as the successor of the Hunyuan School, although Zhao Yizhen himself only admitted the former identity openly.

4. Conclusions

Zhao Yizhen was known as one of the patriarchs of the Qingwei School. He himself insisted that he was the successor of the Qingwei School in his prefaces or postscripts of the ritual texts preserved in Daofa Huiyuan, although he never mentioned his master Zeng Guikuan in his own writing. The masters whom he and the authors of his biographies mentioned again and again were Li Xuanyi, Feng Puyi, and Zhang Tianquan, labeled as the masters of inner alchemy and always traced back to Master Jin Pengtou. Neither his poems nor the biographies of him cited above mentioned that these masters had taught him some kinds of Thunder Methods besides the Method of inner alchemy. It is true but not the entire story.

The Biography of Zhang Tianquan preserved in Lishi Zhenxian Tidao Tongjian, the edition that was likely to be supplemented by Liu Yuanran, gives more details about Zhang Tianquan and shows us the other face of Zhao Yizhen. Zhang Tianquan was one of disciples of Jin Pengtou, as well as the most important disciple of Zha Taiyu and the patriarch of the southeast branch of the Hunyuan School. Zhang Tianquan’s dual experiences gave his disciple, Zhao Yizhen, the opportunity to learn the Thunder Method of Hunyuan from him while accepting the secret Method of inner alchemy at the same time. In fact, in the narratives by the local literati, Zhang Tianquan was always bound with Heavenly Lord Xin, the commander-in-chief of the Thunder Method of Hunyuan. Obviously, Zhang Tianquan was famous not for his achievement of the Method of inner alchemy but for his practice of the Thunder Method of Hunyuan. It is incomprehensible to exclude Zhao Yizhen from the transmission of the Thunder Method of Hunyuan.

Although he would not claim his relationship with the lineage of the Thunder Method of Hunyuan, Zhao Yizhen did transmit the Thunder Method of Hunyuan by merging it into his own ritual system of the Qingwei tradition. As cited above, one of the three texts of the Thunder Method of Hunyuan preserved in Daofa Huiyuan was related to Zhang Tianquan. Additionally, its distinctive divine troops, including a pack of Thunder Officials, Generals, and Marshals, along with Heavenly Lord Xin, were all deployed in the ritual system of the Qingwei tradition redesigned by Zhao Yizhen. Furthermore, Zhao Yizhen held the ordination title “Perfected of Hunyuan,” the highest rank in the Regulations of ordination ranks and titles of the Hunyuan School. Although we have no proof that the Regulations had already existed in Zhao Yizhen’s time, the title must be related to the Thunder Method of Hunyuan, if it is not the highest title. While never admitting he was the successor of the Hunyuan School, Zhao Yizhen, as a Taoist, could not deny Heavenly Lord Xin, as well as the pack of divine troops of the Thunder Method of Hunyuan once granted to him in the Daoist ritual of transmission by his master Zhang Tianquan. Moreover, he needed the ordination title to be announced when he summoned them. In other words, at the scene of Daoist rituals, Zhao Yizhen could practice as a successor of the Thunder Method of Hunyuan if Heavenly Lord Xin and the pack of divine troops were needed.