Correction: Jikeli (2023). How Do Muslims and Jews in Christian Countries See Each Other Today? A Survey Review. Religions 14: 412

Errors in Tables

In the original publication (Jikeli 2023), there were mistakes in Table 8 as published. The previous version did not show the differences by country. It showed the cumulative differences only. The corrected

Table 8. Agreement with antisemitic stereotypes and anti-Israeli views in Austria (AT), France (F), Germany (D), Great Britain (UK), and Sweden (SE) by country, all respondents and Muslim respondents, 2018.

Agreement (in %)	AT	AT-M	D	D-M	F	F-M	SE	SE-M	UK	UK-M
“Jews have too much influence in …
… finance and business in this country”	24	30	19	40	22	35	11	41	16	41
… finance and business across the world.”	32	39	25	60	24	36	15	46	16	32
… political affairs in this country.”	14	15	16	36	17	34	11	39	13	32
… political affairs across the world.”	25	39	19	33	20	39	15	46	14	38
… media in this country.”	13	20	14	44	20	40	13	41	14	47
… media across the world.”	19	25	18	59	18	33	13	46	15	41
… conflict and wars involving this country.”	23	30	26	47	25	45	18	41	15	38
… conflict and wars across the world.”	24	35	23	66	23	45	19	56	19	41
“Jewish people use the Holocaust to advance their position or to achieve certain goals.”	37	42	32	54	27	40	20	50	21	61
Unfavorable views of Jews	10	30	7	22	9	17	7	29	6	12
“Israel uses the Holocaust to justify its actions.”	42	50	41	54	30	45	29	67	27	61
Disagree “Israel has a right to exist as a Jewish state”	8	20	11	34	9	24	10	36	8	29
Unfavorable views of Israel as a country	39	85	36	56	40	63	43	79	35	32
Unfavorable views of the State of Israel	19	74	19	48	24	50	24	59	19	41
Unfavorable views of Israelis	16	64	13	41	14	31	14	54	11	32

Source: (ComRes for CNN 2018).

appears below.

In the original publication, there were mistakes in Table 14 as published. There was a spelling mistake in the table and two numbers were wrong. The corrected

Table 14. Agreement with antisemitic statements, 1 November to 18 December 2018, overall population and Turkish- and Arabic-speaking subsamples in Austria.

Agreement with Antisemitic Statements (in %)	General Population	Turkish-Speaking	Arabic-Speaking
“The Jews dominate the international business world.”	39	63	64
“I am against rehashing over and over again, that Jews died in World War II.”	37	55	46
“Jews today try to take advantage of the fact that they were victims during the Nazi era.”	36	51	59
“The Israelis are also basically treating the Palestinians no differently than the Germans treated the Jews during the Germans treated the Jews during World War II.”	34	65	76
“To a growing extent, the power and influence of the Jews are again evident today in the international press and politics.”	31	62	54
“With the Israeli policies, I can well understand why people would have something against Jews.”	29	57	63
Jews have too much influence in Austria	14	45	37
“When the State of Israel no longer exists, there will be peace in the Middle East.”	11	51	69
“You can’t expect a Jew to be decent.”	8	34	21
“When I meet someone, I know in a few minutes if that person is a Jew.”	11	41	43
“Because of the persecution of the Jews during the Second World War, we have a moral obligation to stand by the Jews in Austria.” (disagree)	41	34	32
“Jews have little interest in integrating into the country in which they live. This is the main reason for their constant problems.”	19	47	50
“It is not just by chance that the Jews have been persecuted so often in their history; at least in part, they themselves are to blame for it.”	19	50	40
“Jews are still responsible for the death of Jesus Christ.”	13	28	17
“In the accounts of concentration camps and the persecution of Jews during World War II much is exaggerated.”	10	41	35
Would be bothered by having Jewish neighbors.	9	13	21

Source: (Zeglovits et al. 2019).

appears below.

Text Correction

There was an error in the original publication. The sentence about the number of survey participants was confusing and the numbers have been updated after two surveys have been added.

A correction has been made to the Abstract:

Muslim–Jewish relations have a long and complex history. However, notions that all Jews and Muslims are eternal enemies are proven wrong both historically and by today’s survey data. A comprehensive review of the available survey data from the last two decades provides a glimpse into the views of Muslims and Jews of each other in countries where both communities are a minority. It is based on 52 surveys from Austria, Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Latvia, the Netherlands, Poland, Russia, Spain, Sweden, the U.K., and the U.S. 39 surveys include samples of Muslim respondents (38,000 in total) and 18 surveys include samples of Jewish respondents (52,000 in total). Five of these surveys include both Muslim and Jewish subsamples. Many Muslims and Jews acknowledge that the other community suffers from discrimination, albeit to varying degrees. Jews often see Islam and Muslim extremists as a threat to Jews, but most Jews, more than society in general, seem to distinguish between Muslim extremists and Muslims in general. Antisemitic attitudes are significantly higher among Muslims than among the general population in all surveys, even though the majority of Muslims in most European countries and in the United States do not exhibit antisemitic attitudes. The differences in anti-Jewish attitudes between Muslims and non-Muslims do not disappear when controlling for sociodemographic factors.

There was an error in the original publication. Someone with a left-wing political view” was used twice.

A correction has been made to Section 4.3. Perceptions of Perpetrators of Antisemitic Incidents, Paragraph 2:

Two major surveys by the European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights, mentioned above, came to similar results for many European countries on perceptions of perpetrators of antisemitic incidents. Between September and October 2012, 5847 self-identified Jews in Belgium, France, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Latvia, Sweden, and the United Kingdom were asked about their experiences of antisemitism. A total of 33% had experienced antisemitic harassment in the previous five years and 7% had experienced physical violence or threats. The most mentioned religious or political background of the assumed perpetrators of antisemitic harassment were “Muslim extremist,” followed by “someone with a left-wing political view” and “someone with a right-wing political view.”⁶ The percentage of perceived Muslim extremist perpetrators was even higher for physical violence and threats, see Figure 6 below.

There was an error in the original publication. Reference was made to Table 7 and Figure 9 instead of Table 8 and Figure 10.

A correction has been made to Section 5.2. International Surveys on Antisemitic Stereotypes among Muslims, Paragraph 3:

Muslims are about twice as likely to agree with antisemitic stereotypes than the general population across the polled countries. This is largely true also in each of the countries, see Table 8. I do not list the percentages for Hungary and Poland because the sample sizes of Muslims were too small in these countries. The sample sizes of Muslim respondents in Austria (20), France (42), Germany (27), Great Britain (34), and Sweden (39) were also too small to provide reliable results, but they might give an indication. The percentages in Table 8 should therefore be treated with caution even if they are surprisingly consistent. The accumulative numbers in Figure 10 are more reliable, drawing on a sample size of 165 Muslim respondents.

There was an error in the original publication. Reference was made to Table 8 instead of Table 10. The word “additional” was added before “600 Muslim respondents” for clarification.

A correction has been made to Section 5.2. International Surveys on Antisemitic Stereotypes among Muslims, Paragraphs 5–7:

The Anti-Defamation League (ADL) commissioned international studies in 2019 and 2015 as part of their “ADL Global 100: An Index of Anti-Semitism” study.¹⁰ Anzalone Liszt Grove Research conducted interviews between 15 April and 3 June 2019, and between 5 March and 8 April 2015. The 2019 survey included Muslim respondents in seven countries with Christian (or atheist) majorities. Similar to the ComRes survey, Muslim sample sizes were very small and can only provide some indication, not reliable numbers. The sample size per country was between 500 and 503, resulting in a margin of error of 4.4%. Only a small percentage of the overall sample was Muslim, ten percent in Belgium, eight percent in France, four percent in Germany, one percent in Italy, eight percent in Russia, one percent in Spain, and six percent in the U.K. That means that there were between 5 (Italy and Spain) and 50 (Belgium) Muslim respondents. However, the cumulative sample size of Muslim respondents in 2019 was 190,¹¹ out of a total sample size of 3518. Table 9 shows the results of the countries with Muslim subsamples of at least 20 respondents. The percentages for the individual countries should be treated with caution. Table 10 shows the cumulative results that I calculated, which provide more reliable overall results.

Muslim respondents are more likely than the overall population to agree with all the individual antisemitic stereotypes in all countries, with two exceptions. In Russia, 40% of the Muslim respondents believe that Jews have too much power in the business world. The percentage was even higher in the Russian population (50%). In Germany, respondents from the overall German population believed slightly more often than the Muslim respondents that people hate Jews because of the way Jews behave. Table 10 shows the results of all seven countries combined. Differences are significant for all antisemitic statements, ranging from a factor of 1.15 to 4.62 with an average of 2.29. This means that Muslims are more than twice as likely as the overall population to agree with an antisemitic statement. They are also more than twice as likely to agree with six or more antisemitic statements.

ADL’s 2015 survey, including a Muslim oversample in Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Spain, and the United Kingdom of 100 respondents each, came to similar results. A total of 21% of all 3000 respondents in the six aforementioned countries agreed with six or more antisemitic stereotypes. A total of 59% of the additional 600 Muslim respondents agreed with six or more antisemitic stereotypes. Table 11 shows the agreements by item and country. The margin of sampling error for Muslims in each country is 9.8%. For the combined average of the Western European Muslim oversample including all six countries (n = 600), the margin of error is 4.0% (Anti-Defamation League 2015).

There was an error in the original publication. “Muslims in all three countries” was replaced with “Muslims in France, Germany, and Spain” for clarification.

A correction has been made to Section 5.2. International Surveys on Antisemitic Stereotypes among Muslims, Paragraph 11:

The study showed that Muslims in France, Germany, and Spain were twice as likely than non-Muslims to harbor negative view of Jews; the factor was almost seven for Great Britain. The difference is even greater concerning “very unfavorable” views of Jews. In 2006, Muslims were three to ten times more likely to harbor “very unfavorable” views of Jews than non-Muslims in France, Germany, and Great Britain. The factor was slightly lower in Spain where negative views of Jews were by far the highest among Muslims (60%) and the general population (39%), see Table 13. This is consistent with other surveys that show high levels of antisemitic attitudes in the general population in Spain.¹² Respondents were also asked if they think that relations between Muslims and people in Western countries are generally bad or good. Interestingly, Muslims in France, Germany, and Spain were less likely to say that relations are bad than the overall population. However, a very small minority of Muslims (4%) in Spain volunteered that “Jews” are mostly to blame for bad relations, although Jews were not mentioned in the question.

There was an error in the original publication. “our interviewers” was replaced with “their interviewers”.

A correction has been made to Section 5.3.2. Belgium, Paragraph 1:

Joël Kotek and Joël Tournemenne conducted a survey among students in Brussels from December 2018 to May 2019. Of the 115 French-speaking schools in the Brussels region, 60 schools were randomly selected. Of these 60 schools, 38 agreed to meet with their interviewers. This represents more than one-third of all French-speaking schools in Brussels, regardless of all networks (secular and Catholic schools) and educational tracks (general, technical, and vocational) combined. A total of 1672 students participated, comprising 451 atheists, 217 non-practicing Catholics, 201 practicing Catholics, 122 non-practicing Muslims, and 527 practicing Muslims (self-declared). Muslim students were significantly more likely to agree with antisemitic statements than Catholic and atheist students on all items, see Figure 11.

There was an error in the original publication. This paragraph has been added to include the results of an additional survey.

A correction has been made to Section 5.3.5. Germany. A new paragraph is to be added before Paragraph 1:

The most rigorous survey to date in Germany to assess the attitudes of Muslims toward Jews was conducted by the Institut für Demoskopie Allensbach on behalf of the American Jewish Committee Berlin Lawrence and Lee Ramer Institute. A total of 1025 German-speaking adults and 561 German-speaking adult Muslims were surveyed online from 22 December 2021 to 18 January 2022. The sample selection was based on the random selection from members of an online panel. The results were weighted for the German-speaking population based on the 2020 microcensus. The weighting of results for the sample of Muslims was based on data from the study “Muslim Life in Germany 2020” (Pfündel et al. 2021). Antisemitic attitudes were significantly more common among Muslims than in the population as a whole and even slightly more common than among AfD supporters. A total of 47% of Muslims and 27% of the overall population believed that “Jews are richer than the average German.” A total of 49% of Muslims and 23% of the general population thought “Jews have too much power in business and finance.” A total of 45% of Muslims and 18% of the total population felt “Jews have too much power in politics.” Too much power among Jews in the media was felt by 46% of Muslims and 18% of the total population. A total of 33% of Muslims and 11% of the population held Jews “responsible for many economic crises.” A total of 22% of Muslim respondents and 6% of the population said they tended to find Jews unsympathetic (American Jewish Committee Berlin Lawrence and Lee Ramer Institute 2022). The study shows that a negative image of Israel correlates with antisemitic attitudes. This correlation is stronger in the overall population than among Muslims. Among Muslims, antisemitic attitudes correlate with the frequency of mosque attendance.

There was an error in the original publication. This paragraph has been updated to include the detailed results of the survey.

A correction has been made to Section 5.3.8. United States, Paragraph 1:

In 2017, the Anti-Defamation League (ADL) commissioned a survey on antisemitism in the United States. Anzalone Liszt Grove conducted the survey in January and February of that year with a representative sample of the American general population of 3600 participants and a sample of American Muslims of 805 participants. The margin of error for the U.S. general population was 1.6%, and the margin of error for the U.S. Muslim population was 3%. A total of 6% of the U.S. general population and 38% of the Muslim population agreed with 6 or more of the 11 antisemitic statements. A total of 4% of the U.S. population and 10% of the Muslim population surveyed said they had an unfavorable view of Jews. However, the overwhelming majority said that they have a favorable view of Jews: 86% of the general population and 80% of the Muslim population. Muslims are significantly more likely to think that Jews are influential and powerful. A total of 56% of Muslim respondents agreed that “Jews have too much power in the business world,” and 57% agreed that “Jews have too much control over the United States government.” Only 11% of the general population agreed with the two statements. Holocaust denial is marginal (1% for both Muslims and the general population), but 20% of Muslim respondents and 5% of the general population agreed with the statement that “The Holocaust happened, but the number of Jews who died in it has been greatly exaggerated by history.”¹⁶

There was an error in the original publication. This paragraph has been added to include the results of this survey.

A correction has been made to Section 5.3.8. United States, Paragraph 2 (new paragraph):

A later survey showed similar results for favorable and unfavorable views of Jews, but with an overall increase in unfavorable views. The Democracy Fund + UCLA Nationscape survey, conducted in multiple waves from mid-2019 to early 2021, included 341,481 participants, 4704 of whom were Muslims, who responded to the favorability question. A total of 11 percent of the total population and 26 percent of Muslim respondents had an unfavorable view of Jews. A total of 69 percent of the total population and 61 percent of Muslim respondents had a favorable view of Jews.¹⁷

There was an error in the original publication. An additional reference has been added.

A correction has been made to Section 5.4. Significant Factors for Antisemitic Attitudes among Muslims, Paragraph 1:

Some surveys provide indications for factors of antisemitic attitudes by looking at potential correlations with demographic and socioeconomic factors such as age, gender, education, and household income, or correlations with other attitudes, such as religiosity. However, the dominant correlation factor for antisemitic attitudes in all surveys with a Muslim and non-Muslim sample is the Muslim identity. While some demographic and socio-economic variables can explain variation within both groups, they do not explain the differences in the level of antisemitic attitudes between Muslims and non-Muslims. In other words, an examination by covariance analyses of the extent to which the differences in prejudice are caused by sociodemographic characteristics between Muslims and non-Muslims showed that the differences in anti-Jewish prejudice between Muslims and non-Muslims persist even when sociodemographic data are taken into account (Koopmans 2015; Cohen 2022; Frindte et al. 2012, p. 226; Haug et al. 2017).

There was an error in the original publication. This paragraph has been added to include the results of this survey.

A correction has been made to Section 5.4. Significant Factors for Antisemitic Attitudes among Muslims. A new paragraph has been inserted after Paragraph 2:

In an American survey that included a question about perceived discrimination against Jews and a question about favorable or unfavorable views of Jews, Cohen found some variation within the Muslim sample. Identifying as a Muslim, being foreign-born, having a negative view of the economy, and the importance of religious beliefs seem to have a negative effect. Alternatively, being female and younger seem to have a positive effect against antisemitic attitudes (Cohen 2022).

There was an error in the original publication. This paragraph has been added to include the results of the survey.

A correction has been made to Section 5.4.5. Islamic Practice and Religiosity, to add a paragraph and a figure after Table 24:

The 2022 Allensbach survey in Germany found a similar relationship (American Jewish Committee Berlin Lawrence and Lee Ramer Institute 2022). Muslims who frequently attend religious services agree significantly more often with antisemitic statements than Muslims who only occasionally, rarely, or never attend an Islamic service, as shown in Figure 15.

Figure 15. Antisemitic attitudes among Muslims by frequency of attendance at religious services, December 2021–January 2022, Germany. Source: (American Jewish Committee Berlin Lawrence and Lee Ramer Institute 2022).

Figure 15. Antisemitic attitudes among Muslims by frequency of attendance at religious services, December 2021–January 2022, Germany. Source: (American Jewish Committee Berlin Lawrence and Lee Ramer Institute 2022).

There was an error in the original publication. The numbers were updated after some surveys were added in the update.

A correction has been made to Section 6. Discussion and Conclusions, Paragraph 2:

This survey review is based on 39 surveys that include samples of Muslim respondents and 18 surveys that include samples of Jewish respondents. Five of these surveys include both Muslim and Jewish subsamples. The total number of Muslim respondents across all surveys is more than 38,000. The total number of Jewish respondents is more than 52,000.

The newly added Notes and References appear below:

Notes

16.

The survey results were only partially published in a confusing press release (Anti-Defamation League (ADL) 2017). The figures are based on raw survey data obtained by the author.

17.

Complete data can be accessed at https://www.voterstudygroup.org/data/nationscape (accessed on 15 April 2023). I am grateful to Jeffrey Cohen for providing the relevant subset of the data at https://dataverse.harvard.edu/dataset.xhtml?persistentId=doi:10.7910/DVN/CDPEAZ (Cohen 2023, accessed on 21 April 2023).

References

(American Jewish Committee Berlin Lawrence and Lee Ramer Institute 2022) American Jewish Committee Berlin Lawrence and Lee Ramer Institute. 2022. Antisemitismus in Deutschland. Eine Repräsentativbefragung. Berlin. Available online: https://ajcgermany.org/de/media/126 (accessed on 1 February 2023).

(Cohen 2022) Cohen, Jeffrey E. 2022. American Muslim Attitudes toward Jews. Religions 13: 441. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel13050441.

(Cohen 2023) Cohen, Jeffrey. 2023. Replication Data for: Cohen, Jeffrey E. “American Muslim Attitudes toward Jews” 2022. Religions 13: 441. Harvard Dataverse, V1, UNF:6:PwsGeRVnLXlX1rccSm2nJw== [fileUNF]. https://doi.org/10.7910/DVN/CDPEAZ.

(Pfündel et al. 2021) Pfündel, Katrin, Anja Stichs, and Kerstin Tanis. 2021. Muslimisches Leben in Deutschland 2020: Studie im Auftrag der Deutschen Islam-Konferenz. In Forschungsbericht/Bundesamt für Migration und Flüchtlinge. Nürnberg: Bundesamt für Migration und Flüchtlinge, vol. 38.

The author states that the scientific conclusions are unaffected. This correction was approved by the Academic Editor. The original publication has also been updated.